Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, as Roman Emperor Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) is the youngest son of Nero Q. Drusus, stepson of Augustus; genus. in Lyon in 10 BC. Sick and weak-willed by nature, he received a careless upbringing among women and freedmen. His reputation as a feeble-minded and harmless man saved his life upon Caligula’s accession to the throne. K. zealously studied science, mainly history; wrote many extensive Greek and Latin works (among other things, about the time after the civil wars and about Carthage), which are all lost. During the assassination of Caligula (41 AD), K. hid in a remote corner of the palace. The Praetorians pulled him out of there and proclaimed him emperor; the Senate, which had been dreaming for several days about the restoration of the republic, was forced to recognize it. By generously gifting the guards, to whom he owed his rise, K. laid the foundation for a destructive custom. The gentleness of the new emperor, his respect for the senate and magistrates, apparently promised a happy reign. When, however, in 42, a conspiracy was discovered on the life of the emperor, K. completely succumbed to the influence of his wife, the vicious Messalina, and her lovers from the freedmen, especially Callistus, Pallas and Narcissus, who indulged her willfulness, greed and cruelty. K. himself indulged in increasing excesses in food and drink, but remained faithful to his scientific work and tirelessly worked on government affairs, especially judicial affairs, while being distinguished by extreme pettiness. During K.'s reign, on his personal initiative, a number of useful measures were introduced, for example, a decree that a sick slave abandoned by his master became free; limiting the endless repetition of holiday games; return of the state treasury to the management of the quaestors; determining the maximum attorney fees; the granting of full citizenship rights (with the right to join the Senate) to non-Italian communities, as evidenced not only by Tacitus, but also by the remains of a bronze table in Lyon, on which part of the speech made on this occasion by K. in 48 before the Senate was preserved. He spent huge sums on buildings - a huge aqueduct (Aqua Claudia), a sluice for draining water from Lake Fucin, a harbor in Ostia, etc. Mauritania was turned into a Roman province; the beginning was laid for the conquest of Britain, where K. himself went; Caius Domitius Corbulus operated successfully in Germany; in the East, good results were also achieved, for a time. After the execution of Messalina, carried out on the orders of Narcissus on behalf, but without the knowledge of the emperor, by the wife of K. Agrippina (49) became no less vicious, but even more cruel. Fearing that K. would deprive her son Nero of the throne in favor of her son Britannicus, and so as not to suffer the fate of Messalina herself, she poisoned the emperor (54). The recognition of K. as a god gave rise to the philosopher Seneca to write the satire "Apocolocyntosis".

See Lehmann, "Claudius" (Gotha, 1858).

Claudius was the youngest child in the family, born in Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France), during the meeting between Augustus, Tiberius and Drusus in August 10 BC. e. Drusus's wife, Antonia, was also there at that time, and she gave birth to a boy there. The boy was born weak and sickly. After the death of his father, he lived and was raised under the supervision of Antonia, who did not like him and spoke very unflatteringly about him:

A man whom nature just began to create, but did not finish.

By the end of his reign, Augustus was completely convinced that Claudius could not be considered as a political figure, although he noted that from time to time the makings of a good speaker and scientist appeared in him, which he wrote about in several letters to Livia:

For the life of me, I am amazed, dear Livia, that I liked the recitation of your grandson Tiberius. I can’t understand how he could, while reciting, say everything he needed to say, and so coherently, when he usually speaks so incoherently.

Scientist

Claudius began writing his first scientific works under Augustus. However, in his History of the Civil Wars, he spoke very critically of the actions of Augustus and too well of the Republicans and his grandfather, Mark Antony. Antonia and Livia did not allow the young Claudius to continue studying the history of civil wars.

Then Claudius' attention switched to other topics, more distant in time and less dangerous. His main works were the extensive “History of the Etruscans” in twenty books, for which he compiled a dictionary of the Etruscan language, already then practically forgotten in Rome, and “History of Carthage” in eight books. He also wrote a half-joking instruction on playing dice, which he loved very much.

None of his works have survived to this day. The whole impression about them can be formed only from small quotes found in Pliny in his Natural History.

Claudius also attempted to change the Latin alphabet. He introduced three new letters into the alphabet, which were called “Claudian letters”. They did not come into widespread use. The shapes of the signs were probably chosen to make their meaning clear; they were built on the model of existing letters. The letters were used only during the reign of Claudius, and were abandoned after his death.

Emperor's nephew

During the reign of Tiberius, who, like Augustus, considered Claudius completely worthless, he tried to stay as far away from politics as possible. Claudius spent most of his time at his villa near Rome, or in Campania. Antonia lived in his Roman house, with whom he maintained a very cold relationship, and he rarely appeared there.

After the overthrow of Sejanus, Claudius was again elected head of the embassy of horsemen to the consuls, bringing congratulations to Tiberius. Despite the attitude of the emperor towards him, he enjoyed the respect of the Senate and the horsemen - when he appeared, the latter always stood up, and the senators ranked him among the priests of Augustus in excess of the established number of priests. The Senate also tried to equate him in rights with the consulars, but Tiberius canceled this resolution.

Dying, Tiberius ranked Claudius among the heirs of the third line, but at the same time left him two million sesterces and especially pointed out him to the troops, the Senate and the Roman people, thereby recognizing him as a member of the imperial family, although Claudius was not officially adopted into the Julian family.

"Uncle Claudius"

In the same year, or early in 38, Caligula married Claudius to Messalina, daughter of Marcus Valerius Messala Barbatus, consul of 20, who came from the patrician Valerian family, and Domitia Lepida the Younger, daughter of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul of 16 BC. ) and Antonia the Elder.

The name Messalina, thanks to ancient historians, became a household name in the description of depraved and sexually preoccupied women. Basically, her behavior is characterized as offensive and shameful, and she herself is characterized as a cruel, stingy and stupid nymphomaniac. It is most often mentioned by Tacitus and Suetonius in their works.

History has known a lot of depraved women, and dissolute behavior in Rome did not surprise anyone at that time, but Messalina’s insatiable sexual appetite amazed even the seasoned Roman public. The inhabitants were most outraged that Messalina, who had lost her virginity at the age of thirteen, flaunted her dissipation, being immensely proud of it.

Around 40, Messalina bore him a daughter, Claudia Octavia, and in 41, a son and heir, to whom Claudius gave the cognomen Britannicus in honor of his then planned campaign in Britain.

Caligula soon showed his true character. Claudius could no longer retire to Campania, since Caligula kept him with him, and at court he often became the target of evil jokes, unfounded accusations and bullying. Moreover, his life hung in the balance more than once, especially after the discovery of the Lepidus conspiracy. Claudius left Rome with congratulations to the emperor, but he was angry that the Senate sent his uncle to him, as if to a boy, and threw Claudius in his clothes into the river.

Claudius accompanied Caligula on his German campaign. Upon his return, the emperor offered Claudius to buy the position of priest in his cult for either 8 or 10 million sesterces, secured by property. Naturally, it was not possible to buy back the mortgaged property.

From then on, Claudius had only a small house in Rome. Caligula continued to keep him with him, mainly for humiliation. Even in the Senate, he was allowed to vote last, after the newly introduced members of the Senate. Being in constant fear, Claudius was sick a lot and began to look bad.

January '41

Running through the palace, a soldier named Grat discovered him behind a curtain and, falling at his feet, greeted him with the title of emperor and took him to his colleagues, who, having completed their plan, did not know what to do next.

The Praetorians carried Claudius into their camp, contrasting his figure with the Senate, which wanted to proclaim a republic. Senators gathered on the Capitol, people crowded into the forum. The Senate sent the tribunes Veranius and Brocchus to Claudius: they called on him to submit to the will of the Senate and threatened him with the fate of Caligula; but, seeing the mass of troops surrounding Claudius, they began to ask him to at least accept power from the hands of the Senate.

In the morning, seeing that disputes for power had begun in the Senate between Valery Asiaticus and Marcus Vinicius, the people, alarmed by the dominance of the aristocracy, began to demand a sovereign emperor. Cassius Chaerea, who led the cohorts of the city guard that night, was unable to keep them from going over to the side of the Praetorians.

Having learned about this, Claudius took the oath from the Praetorians, promising them 15,000 sesterces to be faithful, and thus becoming the first of the Caesars to buy power with money. The Senate had no choice but to confirm the powers of the new emperor.

Rise to power

No one ever prepared Claudius to fulfill the duties of a ruler. However, his studies of history and rhetoric in childhood and youth, communication with the outstanding minds of the time and the historical examples of rulers, about whom he was well aware, made him an emperor who came to power by accident, but during his reign he completely concentrated it in his hands, won several military campaigns, very significantly expanded the borders of the Roman Empire, and became the second ruler since Augustus who was deified after his death.

He began his reign with the execution of the conspirators who directly took part in the murder of Caligula - Chaerea, Lupus and Sabinus. After this, he ordered that everything that was said and done during the days of the coup be consigned to oblivion, and he himself followed this rule strictly.

Claudius also gave divine honors to Livia Drusilla equal to those given to Augustus. He rehabilitated all the other undeservedly forgotten and slandered relatives during Caligula’s reign, living and dead, and assigned them various honors. Those who served their sentences were released from prison and returned from exile. All of Caligula’s decrees were repealed, but Claudius considered the day he came to power to be the day of his predecessor’s death, and he banned celebrations on that day.

Centralization of power

Secretariat

In the first years of his reign, Claudius organized an imperial secretariat, in which he created four colleges, headed by freedmen loyal to him. This was caused by the relationship between the emperor and the nobility, including the Senate. Claudius simply could not trust people from the high Roman society.

The boards were headed by: Tiberius Claudius Narcissus received the post of secretary (responsible for correspondence); Mark Antony Pallas took over as treasurer; Gaius Julius Callistus headed the College of Science and Justice; and Gaius Julius Polybius was responsible for everything else. As can be seen from the names, only Narcissus was a freedman of Claudius himself, Callistus and Polybius gained freedom during the reign of Caligula, and Pallas belonged to Antonia the Younger and was freed during the time of Tiberius.

This decision allowed Claudius to sufficiently strengthen his power in a short time, despite the opposition of Senators who were dissatisfied with this state of affairs. Money, jurisprudence, lawmaking, and the army were in the hands of people loyal to the emperor. It was they who advised Claudius of certain people as legates of the legions, and it was to them that Claudius owed the idea of ​​a victorious British campaign, which significantly increased his popularity and strengthened his position.

Naturally, having received such power, all four used it not only for the benefit of the state, but also for personal enrichment. According to Pliny, some of them were richer than Crassus himself, the richest of the Romans who lived in the time of Julius Caesar.

Senate

Image of Claudius on a coin from the site www.coin-gold.com

Since, in fact, Claudius gained power bypassing the Senate, in the first years of his reign he tried to create the appearance that the main governing body in the state was the Senate, and he was only “first among equals.” Claudius renounced all titles and positions except princeps of the Senate and tribunician power - the main ones for the principate. He assumed the remaining titles, including Emperor and Father of the Fatherland, during his reign.

However, this did not protect him from numerous conspiracies and assassination attempts, in which senators were also involved. In addition, sensing relative freedom, the Senate delayed the discussion and adoption of various laws and acts. This prompted the emperor to carry out profound reforms in the Senate.

This caused understandable resistance from the Senate, and therefore, in 48, Claudius had to sharply reduce the power of the senators. By that time, the secretariat was already functioning, and the emperor was able to concentrate power in his hands. The Senate was limited in making financial decisions and minting money, transferring this to the appropriate board, and also took away control of the main port in Ostia, sending an imperial procurator there. From that moment on, any attempts by senators to oppose the will of the emperor were brutally suppressed, which led to considerable casualties among the nobility. During the reign of Claudius, 35 senators and more than 300 representatives of the equestrian class were executed.

Expanding the borders of the empire. British campaign

Claudius, already two years after coming to power, moved away from the principles of foreign policy that Tiberius, who had fought under Augustus, professed during his reign, and planned a military campaign that significantly expanded the borders of the empire. This campaign consisted of landing Roman troops in Britain and turning it into a Roman province.

Attempts to conquer Britain were made by Caesar, in the 50s of the 1st century BC. e. , however, despite local successes, did not lead to the enslavement of the Britons. Augustus and Tiberius were busy with more pressing issues than an island at the end of the earth. In 40, Caligula attempted a campaign against Britain, but it was carried out in his inimitable manner: the troops were drawn up in battle formations on the Gallic shore in front of the English Channel, after which they were ordered to attack the water. After the attack, the legionnaires were ordered to collect shells on the shore, which were displayed on the Capitol in the form of military booty.

A victorious war would undoubtedly strengthen Claudius's still fragile position. Most likely, it was this circumstance that made the emperor think about Britain again. The reason for the war was the expulsion of their king, Verica, by the Atrebates, who were clients of Rome.

Claudius formed an army of about 40,000 men, which included four legions and about the same number of additional troops. Aulus Plautius was placed at the head of the army, and one of the legions was commanded by a young legate named Vespasian.

Plautius organized the persecution and defeated the scattered forces of the Britons. A few days later, in Camulodunum (modern Colchester), Claudius accepted the surrender of 11 British kings. Togodumnus was already dead by that time, and Caratacus fled. Later, in 50, he was caught and pardoned by Claudius. The entire British campaign took 16 days. Britain was captured and became a Roman province, Claudius was awarded a triumph and the cognomen Britannicus, which he renounced.

Thus, by the year 48, when Claudius took the census, the first since the death of Augustus, Rome had 5,984,072 citizens, a million more than in the year of Augustus's death. The number of residents increased by more than a third.

Administrative activities

Lawmaking and jurisprudence

During his reign, the emperor paid great attention to the judicial system. He presided over many court hearings, and often, when making decisions, did not always follow the letter of the law. To improve the functioning of the judicial system, in order to reduce the queue of cases awaiting consideration, Claudius increased the time of summer and winter sessions during which the courts worked. He also issued laws that prohibited plaintiffs from leaving the city while their cases were pending. This had an effect - the courts started working faster. As a measure to increase the authority of the courts, the emperor increased the age limit for judges to 25 years.

With his intervention, the emperor put an end to many long-standing conflicts that were smoldering in the Roman provinces. Thus, at the very beginning of his reign, he resolved the confrontation between the Greeks and Jews in Alexandria, which led to massacres and an uprising, suppressed by the Romans. Immediately after the uprising, two embassies were sent to the emperor, one from each community. The result was the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which confirmed the rights of Jews in the city, but limited the acquisition of Alexandrian citizenship for new arrivals. By the next decree, Claudius established the rights of Jews throughout the entire state.

Claudius also personally took part in matters relating to Roman citizenship. He severely punished those who dared to illegally appropriate it for themselves. However, when his investigators discovered that a large group of Trento residents who were considered citizens were not, he ordered that everything be left as it was, pointing out that depriving them of their citizenship status and subsequent punishment would entail much greater problems than Rome recognizing their right to citizenship. At the same time, freedmen who illegally assigned themselves to the horsemen were mercilessly sold into slavery again.

Gate "Porta Maggiore", where "Aqua Claudia" and "Anio Novus" converged

During his reign, Claudius published a large number of works relating to almost all aspects of the life of Roman society - from moral instructions to medical advice. Some of them acquired the status of imperial edicts, such as the decree that freed those slaves who were left by their masters to die in the temple of Aesculapius and were cured there. Previously, masters could demand a cured slave back. Moreover, those masters who refused medical care to a slave were now accused of murder.

Among Claudius's medical researches, the most amusing are the advice to take yew tree sap against the bites of poisonous snakes, as well as the conclusion that public release of farts improves health.

Economic activity

Remains of the Aqua Claudia aqueduct

During his reign, Claudius did not neglect economic activities, trying to improve the situation of the inhabitants, both in Rome itself and in the provinces.

On his instructions, two new aqueducts were built, the construction of which began under Caligula, but was then suspended. The first was named “Aqua Claudia”, and the second - “Anio Novus”. The total length of the aqueducts was more than 96 miles, and the daily flow of water pumped through them was more than 250,000 m³. The Aqua Virgo, which had fallen into disrepair, was also restored, producing another 100,000 m³ per day. The last aqueduct still works in Rome, feeding its fountains, including the Trevi Fountain.

Claudius paid serious attention to communication in the empire. During his reign, a canal was built linking the Rhine with the sea, as well as a road from Germany to Italy. He also built a new port city, which made it possible to avoid shortages of grain coming by sea from Egypt, since the port in Ostia could no longer cope. The city received the name Port and was located 2.5 km north of Ostia. A canal was built from it to Ostia so that ships could freely ascend it at any time to the new port. Also, in order to increase the interest of merchants in the transportation of grain, taxes on grain trade imposed by Caligula were reduced and some privileges were introduced for merchants, including obtaining Roman citizenship.

Another area that the emperor paid great attention to was an attempt to increase the area of ​​irrigated land suitable for cultivation in Italy. During the reign of Claudius, the first attempt was made to drain Lake Fucinus. To drain it, a tunnel was dug through the hills of Monte Salviano. The tunnel took 11 years to build, but the release of water was unsuccessful. The tunnel was too small, the water gushing from the lake flooded the adjacent lands and washed away the participants in the games that were supposed to commemorate such a significant event. Claudius, like the rest of the participants, had to flee. Subsequent attempts to drain the lake were repeated by Trajan and Hadrian in ancient times, by Frederick II in the Middle Ages, and it was finally drained by Prince Alessandro Torlonia in 1875.

Modern view of the valley of the former Fuqing Lake

Riots and conspiracies

First half of reign

Almost the entire reign of the emperor, despite the love of the common people for him, was marked by speeches against him by representatives of the Roman nobility. However, there are suggestions that most of the discovered conspiracies against him were staged by his last two wives: before 48 - Messalina, who tried by hook or by crook to protect Britannicus from possible competitors, and after - Agrippina, a powerful intriguer who, through fear, maintained complete control over emperor

Among all these, possibly fictitious, attempted conspiracies, in 42 there was an attempt to raise an uprising against the emperor. The legate propraetor of Dalmatia, consul for 32 years, Lucius Arruntius Scribonianus, at the instigation of the legate of the V Legion located in Dalmatia, Lucius Annius Vinician, raised an open rebellion in his province against the emperor, the goal of which he declared was the restoration of the republic.

The uprising ended after 4 days when the legion refused to obey the rebels. Vinicianus was most likely killed by the legionnaires, and Scribonianus fled to Issa, where he either committed suicide or was killed.

Messalina Conspiracy

Cameo depicting Messalina with her children, Britannicus and Octavia

In 48, wanting to completely take power into her own hands, Messalina plans to make her lover, Gaius Silius, emperor. This was due to the fact that the positions of Agrippina and Nero had greatly strengthened since influential Romans began to support her. Thus, at the Terentine Games of 47, during a performance showing the siege of Troy, Messalina and Britannicus received much less attention from the crowd than Agrippina and Nero, who were also present. Messalina treated this as the first manifestation of the fact that her authority was falling.

At the beginning of 48, she forces her lover Gaius Silius to divorce his wife Junia Silana. When Claudius left for Ostia, Messalina, officially continuing to be married to the emperor, takes the first step of the conspiracy she is planning - she enters into a marriage contract in the presence of witnesses and marries Silius.

Tiberius Claudius Narcissus reported this to the emperor. He, being a soft and pliable man, hesitated in making a decision, and Narcissus himself, on behalf of the emperor, gave the Praetorians the command to capture Messalina and Silium.

Messalina was captured in Ostia, where she had gone to see Claudius. However, by that time the emperor had already left the city. Messalina was returned to Rome and placed in the Gardens of Lucullus, under the supervision of her mother, Domitia Lepida.

Domitia never approved of Messalina's lifestyle, but did not refuse to be with her daughter in her last moments. Together they prepared a petition to Claudius for clemency, but it had no effect. Messalina was broken and cried all the time, only now realizing the position she had put herself in.

There were three witnesses to Messalina's death - the emperor's envoy, one of his freedmen and her mother. When the imperial legate and the freedman appeared, Lepida said to her daughter: “Your life is over. All that remains is to make her end worthy." .

Messalina was asked to kill herself, but she could not do this, and then the legate stabbed her with a dagger. At the same time, the freedman taken as a witness insulted her all the time. Messalina's body was left to her mother.

Claudius did not react in any way to the news of his wife's death. At the time this was reported to him, he was having dinner. The only reaction was a request to pour him more wine. A few days after her death, the Senate condemned her name to oblivion (lat. Damnatio memoriae ) .

Agrippina

At first Claudius hesitated. However, the persuasion of Pallas, as well as the passion, pressure and beauty of Agrippina did their job. By that time, Agrippina had just turned 33 years old. Pliny the Elder writes that she was a beautiful and respected woman, but ruthless, ambitious, despotic and domineering. He also says that she had wolf fangs, which was a sign of good luck.

The emperor agreed with the words: “I agree, since this is my daughter, raised by me, born and raised on my knees...”. On January 1, 49, Claudius and Agrippina were married.

Agrippina, having married Claudius, continued to act in the same way as his previous wife. She tried, through intimidation, to gain complete control over the emperor in order to be able, after his death, to painlessly transfer power to her son, Nero.

Because of her intrigues, the brothers Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus and Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, as well as their sister Junia Calvina, Caligula's ex-wife Lollia Paulina, and the teacher of Britannica Sosebius were executed or expelled and driven to suicide. Britannicus himself was removed from the court.

In 50, Agrippina received the title of Augusta, and in the same year Claudius adopted Nero. In 51, on her instructions, Claudius appoints Afranius Burrus, who was devoted to her and Nero, as prefect of the praetorians. Soon all the threads of power pass into the hands of Agrippina. However, the emperor begins to become disillusioned with his marriage to Agrippina. He again brings Britannicus closer to him and begins to prepare him for power, treating Nero and Agrippina more and more coolly. Seeing this, Agrippina realized that Nero's only chance of coming to power was to do it as quickly as possible. On October 13, 54, Claudius dies after eating a plate of mushrooms offered by Agrippina. However, some ancient historians say that Claudius died of natural causes.

Death. Deification

Most ancient Roman sources claim that Claudius died in the early hours of October 13, 54 from mushroom poisoning. Also, almost everyone agrees that the initiator of this poisoning was Agrippina, who tried to maintain power for Nero, who was appointed heir, since Claudius again brought Britannicus closer to himself. However, further discrepancies begin. Suetonius states that Claudius died in Rome, whereas according to Tacitus, the place of the emperor's death was Sinuessa (in the area of ​​modern Mondragone, Italy).

The executor is considered either Halot, whose duties included tasting the imperial food, or his doctor Xenophon, as well as Locusta, who ordered his death. But the same Tacitus, and some modern scientists, believe that the poisoning of Claudius was a fiction, and he died of old age.

Later, despite the deification of Claudius, Nero repealed many of his laws and edicts under the pretext of their stupidity. The Temple of Claudius, founded immediately after his death, was not completed. Later, Nero completely destroyed it, starting to build his Golden House in its place.

After the Flavius ​​firmly established themselves in power, the memory of Claudius gradually began to fade away. Already in the second century, his books were lost, and he was remembered as a feeble-minded person. After Pertinax, whose birthday coincided with the birthday of Claudius, came to power, he was practically forgotten.

Notes

1. Suetonius. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. - Divine Claudius, 1-4.
2. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 4.
3. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 4 (6).
4. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 5-6.
5. Scramuzza, Vincent. The Emperor Claudius Harvard University Press. - Cambridge, 1940.
6. Momigliano, Arnaldo. Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement Trans. W.D. Hogarth. W. Heffer and Sons. - Cambridge, 1934.
7. Pliny the Elder. Natural History, VII, 35.
8. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 41.
9. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 26-27.
10. Leon, E.F."The Imbecillitas of the Emperor Claudius," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 79 (1948), 79-86.
11. Tacitus. Annals, I, 54.
12. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 6 (7).
13. Gasparov M. L., Shtaerman E. M. Comments on the publication “The Life of the 12 Caesars”. Commentary 25 to the book “The Divine Claudius”. - M.: Publishing house "Science", 1993.
14. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 7.
15. Dio Cassius
16. Publius Cornelius Tacitus. Annals, XI, 1, 2, 12, 26-38.
17. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 17, 26, 27, 29, 36, 37, 39; Nero, 6; Vitellius, 2.
18. Josephus Flavius
19. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 9 (1).
20. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 9 (2).
21. Dio Cassius Roman History, LX, 2.
22. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 10 (1).
23. Note 32 to “Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus. The Life of the Twelve Caesars. Divine Claudius." - M.: Publishing house "Science", 1993.
24. Josephus Flavius. Jewish Antiquities, XIX, 3-4.
25. Gasparov M. L., Shtaerman E. M. Note 35 to “Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus. The Life of the Twelve Caesars. Divine Claudius." - M.: “Science”, 1993.
26. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 10 (3).
27. Josephus Flavius. Jewish Antiquities, XIX, 4-5.
28. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 11.
29. Tacitus. Annals, XII, 65.
30. H H Scullard (1982), From the Gracchi to Nero (fifth edition).
31. Pliny the Elder. Natural History, XXXVI, 60.
32. Oost, S.V. The Career of M. Antonius Pallas. - American Journal of Philology 79 (1958). - P. 113-139.
33. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 28.
34. Pliny the Elder. Natural history, 134.
35. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 12.
36. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 12, 2.
37. Tacitus. Annals, XI.
38. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 29.
39. Dio Cassius. Roman History, LIX, 25.
40. Scramuzza, Vincent. The Emperor Claudius Harvard University Press. - Cambridge, 1940. - Chap. 9.
41. Dio Cassius. Roman History, LX, 19.
42. Eutropius. Breviary from the foundation of the City / Trans. from lat. D. V. Kareeva, L. A. Samutkina. - St. Petersburg. , 2001. - 7:13. - ISBN 5-89329-345-2.
43. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 17.
44. Tacitus. Annals, XII, 33-38.
45. Pliny the Elder. Natural History, V, 1-2.
46. Scramuzza, Vincent. The Emperor Claudius Harvard University Press. - Cambridge, 1940. - Chap. 7.
47. Dio Cassius. Roman History, LXI, 33.
48. Scramuzza, Vincent. The Emperor Claudius Harvard University Press. - Cambridge, 1940. - Chap. 6.
49. Letter to the Alexandrians. (English)
50. Josephus Flavius. Jewish Antiquities, XIX, 287.
51. The Historical Library of Diodorus Siculus. - Book V. - Ch. II.
52. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 51.
53. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 32.
54. Sextus Julius Frontinius. Aqueducts of the city of Rome.
55. Katherine Rinne. "Fluid Precision: Giacomo della Porta and the Acqua Vergine fountains of Rome", in Landscapes of Memory and Experience, ed. Jan Birksted. - London, 2000. - P. 183-201.
56. Tacitus. Annals, XII.
57. Tacitus. Annals, XII, 57.
58. Anthony A. Barrett. Agrippina. Sex, Power And Politics In The Early Empire. - Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1996. - ISBN 0-300-07856-0.
59. Dio Cassius. Roman History, LX, 14-18, 27-31.
60. Suetonius. Otho, 2.
61. Dio Cassius. Roman History, II, 75.
62. Tacitus. Annals, XII, 5.
63. Pliny the Elder. Natural History, III, 16, 9.
64. Tacitus. Annals, XI, 26-38.
65. Josephus Flavius. Jewish Antiquities, XX, 8.
66. Pliny the Elder. Natural History, II 92, XI 189, XXII 92.
67. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 44.
68. Tacitus. Annals, XII, 64, 66-67.
69. Tacitus. Annals, XII, 66.
70. Suetonius. Divine Claudius, 43, 44.
71. Josephus Flavius. Jewish Antiquities, xx., 148, 151.
72. Dio Cassius. History of Rome, LX, 34.
73. Pliny the Elder. Natural History, II, 92, XI, 189, XXII, 92.
74. Scramuzza, Vincent. The Emperor Claudius Harvard University Press. - Cambridge, 1940. - P. 92-93.
75. Levick, Barbara. Claudius. - 1990. - P. 76-77.
76. Suetonius. Nero, 9.
77. Suetonius. Nero, 13.
78. Amphiteatrov A.V. Beast from the Abyss. - M.: “Algorithm”, 1996. - P. 324. - ISBN 5-7287-0091-8.
79. Levick, Barbara. Claudius. - 1990.

Literature

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

Sources

The son of Nero Claudius Drusus, nephew of Tiberius and uncle of Gaius Caligula - Claudius I Tiberius Drusus Nero Caesar Germanicus - ruled the Roman Empire in 41-54. Claudius owed his ascension to the throne to the fact that after the murder of Caligula he remained the only adult representative of the Julius-Claudian family.

The future emperor's relatives did not allow him to participate in public activities for a long time, considering Claudius mentally handicapped. In addition, he limped and stuttered. Therefore, they did not pay attention to him, giving him the opportunity to do what he liked. This allowed the future emperor to become (in particular, under the leadership of Titus Livy) a recognized expert on antiquities. By the way, Claudius was one of the few Romans who retained knowledge of the Etruscan language in this late era. He wrote a number of works: on the history of Rome (from 27 BC), Carthage and the Etruscans (the last two in Greek), as well as an autobiography.

All this speaks as well as possible that Claudius was not at all mentally retarded; on the contrary, his abilities were much above average. But unfortunately, subsequent historiography made the Roman emperor a pitiful, ridiculous and weak-willed person who was constantly at the mercy of his wives or freedmen. Apparently, historians formed an idea of ​​Claudius based on documents found dating back to the last years of the emperor’s reign.

During this period, Claudius indeed behaved somewhat strangely, but for most of his reign he was himself - a despotic and invariably independent ruler.

Claudius was married four times, all of them unsuccessful. His first wife, Plautia Urgulanilla, was descended from the Etruscans. It is believed that it was she who introduced Claudius to the Etruscan language and the ancient traditions of a highly developed civilization. Claudius loved his wife, but was forced to divorce her: Plautia cheated on her husband.

After breaking up with Plautia, the great Roman entered into a second marriage. This time his wife was Elia Petina. Elia was a respectable woman, but despite this, Claudius’ marriage fell apart. The reason for this was constant quarrels: the spouses argued almost every day, mostly over trifles. Once, after another quarrel, Claudius could not stand it and kicked his grumpy wife out of the house.

The third wife of the emperor, Valeria Messalina, as you know, was distinguished by unsurpassed debauchery, which became a household name. Messalina, with her incredible depravity, surpassed all her dissolute contemporaries. Thus, according to the testimony of Aurelius Victor, she forced noble and respectable matrons to indulge in debauchery with her, and forced their husbands to be present at this. If someone refused to take part in her orgies, then false accusations were immediately raised against this person and his entire family.

Interestingly, Messalina completely openly cheated on her husband, one might say, in front of the entire city, and Claudius was the only one who knew nothing about it.

In the end, the dissolute wife of Claudius was filled with such insolence that, without hiding from anyone, she had a magnificent wedding with one of her many lovers, Gaius Silius. Only then did Claudius order Messalina to be executed. This is what Suetonius wrote about this: “... having learned that, at the conclusion of all her debauchery and obscenity, she (Valeria Messalina) even entered into marriage with Gaius Silius and signed an agreement in front of witnesses, he (Claudius) executed her by death...”.

But, before talking about the tragic death of the third wife of the Roman emperor, it would not be amiss to turn to the circumstances of this very unusual marriage. By the way, according to some historical sources, even before Messalina got married to Silius, she informed Claudius about the divorce.

Cornelius Tacitus described in some detail all the events that took place at that time in the imperial family. According to Tacitus, Messalina, inflamed with passion for Gaius Silius, “not secretly, but accompanied by many, openly visited his house, followed him everywhere, generously endowed him with money and honors, and with her lover, as if the supreme power had already passed into his hands, one could see the princeps’ slaves, his freedmen and utensils from his house.”

Further, from the story of Tacitus, it is clear that it was not Messalina who encouraged her lover to marry her, but it was Gaius Silius who insisted that she marry him. As Tacitus wrote, at first Messalina was indifferent to conversations about marriage, but in the end (perhaps under pressure from Silius) she agreed. According to Tacitus, she agreed to marriage because “the thought of marriage nevertheless attracted her with its exorbitant impudence, in which those who have wasted everything else find their last pleasure. So, barely waiting for the departure of Claudius, who went to Ostia for the sacrifice, she solemnly celebrates all the wedding rites.”

Tacitus’ further story about these events is very interesting: “I know it will seem like a fairy tale that in a city that knows everything and hides nothing, there was found among mortals such a daring and carefree person, and a consul for the next term, who met his wife on a pre-arranged day the princeps, having called witnesses to sign their marriage contract, that she listened to the words of those performing the marriage ceremony, put on a wedding veil, made sacrifices before the altars of the gods, that they reclined among the feasters, that there were kisses, hugs, and finally that the night was spent by them in marital liberty. But I have not invented anything to amaze the imagination, and I will only convey what the old people heard about and what they wrote down.”

Judging by the description of Tacitus, the marriage of Messalina and Silius was concluded according to all the rules. By the way, as is clear from the story, not a single person expressed even a shadow of doubt about the legality of this marriage. The most mysterious thing in this story is that, as many historians testify, Messalina married her lover, as they say, while her husband was alive. That is, after this wedding she had two legal spouses.

Of course, from the point of view of common sense, Messalina’s act cannot be called anything other than madness: the husband leaves for Ostia, and the wife not only takes a lover, but also marries him. But did Messalina have two husbands at the same time? Or have historians missed something?

If we carefully consider the circumstances of the marriage of Messalina with Silius and study historiographical works, we will notice that neither Tacitus nor other chroniclers in their stories say anything about the fact that the emperor’s entourage remaining in Rome somehow opposed the marriage of Silius and Messalina. The court became alarmed only after the wedding of Silius, who, according to many Romans, could stage a coup.

Moreover, attention is drawn to the fact that the Roman nobility became afraid of the coup after this marriage took place, and not during the wedding ceremony. For example, Tacitus wrote that Claudius’s favorite freedman Narcissus conceived an intrigue against Messalina with the help of two of the emperor’s concubines, who, on his orders, informed the latter about the marriage of Messalina and Silius. What exactly the concubines said to Claudius and in what light they presented his unfaithful wife is unknown. The only information that has reached us is that Claudius at first did not intend to accuse Messalina of adultery, but only wanted to talk to Silius so that he would break the marriage contract.

It turns out that the marriage of Messalina and Silius was not illegal at all? Thus, Tacitus quotes the words allegedly said by Narcissus to Claudius: “Or do you not know that you have received a divorce?”

By the way, according to the law issued by Julius, in some cases, a divorce letter confirmed by seven witnesses was sufficient for a divorce. And judging by the words of Narcissus, it is quite possible that Claudius received such a letter. That is, at the time of the marriage of Messalina and Silius, the emperor and his wife were already divorced.

But most likely Claudius did not want to put up with the loss of his beloved wife (according to many historical sources, the emperor was madly in love with Messalina), and, of course, his reaction to her wedding with Silius was negative. Claudius was confused and did not know how to behave, since Messalina’s legal position was invulnerable.

Further, Tacitus quotes the words of Narcissus, from which we can conclude that the wedding of Silius and Messalina was public and legal: “After all, the marriage of Silius took place in front of the people, the Senate and the army, and if you do not act immediately, the husband of Messalina will take possession of Rome.”

It turns out that Narcissus’s advice to the emperor and the latter’s further actions, committed under the influence of the favorite, were not at all determined by Messalina’s outrageous behavior from a moral point of view, but by Claudius’s fear of losing power and his adored wife. Of course, Narcissus’ actions were guided by the same fear of losing his position (as we know, Narcissus had great influence on Claudius).

Tacitus wrote that the emperor himself did not take an active part in the conspiracy against Silius and Messalina. This conspiracy was organized precisely by Narcissus, who involved the prefect of Annona Turranius and the praetorian prefect Lusius Geta. But the Vestals and the Supreme Pontiff stood up for Messalina, that is, the very people who formalized her marriage to Silius. This fact once again indicates that Messalina was already divorced from the emperor at the time of her marriage to Silius. By the way, according to the story of Tacitus, the praetorian prefect Geta also acted on Messalina’s side, supported by those close to the emperor, Lucius Vitellius and Caecina Largus.

Since Claudius was hesitant and unenthusiastic about confronting his ex-wife, Narcissus constantly reminded the emperor of her numerous infidelities, of the debauchery that took place in front of the entire society. In addition, Narcissus did everything to prevent the former spouses from meeting and talking - this made it easier for him to sow enmity between them.

Messalina tried several times to see Claudius in order to talk and convince him not to interfere with her family happiness with Silius, but Narcissus did everything possible to prevent this meeting from taking place. Then Messalina decided to act through her children, but Narcissus prevented her from doing this too, convincing the emperor not to meet his children from Messalina. Only the Vestal Vibidia managed to get into the imperial palace, where she was going to speak to Claudius in defense of his ex-wife. But she was intercepted by the same insidious Narcissus, who said that the emperor would only talk to Messalina herself.

Thus, if we take into account the story of Tacitus, it turns out that the initiative to accuse Messalina belonged to Narcissus, Claudius only tacitly connived with him.

The reason for the accusation against Silius was the things found in his palace that previously belonged to the Claudian family. Narcissus brought Claudius to the palace of Silius and showed him pieces of furniture, sculptures and jewelry that had previously been in the emperor's possession.

This in itself could not be called a crime. After all, the things of Claudius, found by Narcissus in the palace of Silius, could be Messalina’s dowry, which she legally brought to the house of her new husband. Of course, Narcissus was not at all concerned about the legitimacy of the accusations: it was important for him to put psychological pressure on the emperor. Claudius, in addition to being terribly jealous of his ex-wife for Silius, was also extremely annoyed by what he saw (he was generally known as a very hot-tempered person), so Narcissus did not have to make any effort to persuade the emperor to meet with the Praetorians, who had already prepared for the reception .

Claudius was very upset and did not want to speak to the praetorians, but Narcissus asked permission to speak on his behalf. The emperor had no choice but to give his consent. The favorite's speech was apparently carefully prepared in advance and, after listening to his accusations, the Praetorians demanded punishment for Silius. By the way, the accused himself did not even try to justify himself, which is the best indication that he had nothing to blame himself for. The only thing he asked of those gathered was not to delay the execution, since the expectation of death was unbearable for him. Silius understood perfectly well that the preponderance of forces was on the side of the intriguers and he had no choice but to come to terms with the inevitable.

After the execution of Silius, Narcissus, on behalf of Claudius, ordered the execution of several noble Romans under the guise of lovers of Messalina. Whether they were actually Messalina’s lovers or whether for some reason it was beneficial for Narcissa to destroy them is unknown.

Tacitus wrote that after the death of Silius, Claudius intended to meet with Messalina. He probably expected, after eliminating his rival, to reconcile with his ex-wife, since he himself, apparently, did not want to divorce her. Upon learning of this, Narcissus took extreme measures, ordering the death of Messalina. What prevented the favorite from renewing the relationship between Claudius and his ex-wife? The fact is that after the death of Silius, Messalina’s return to the emperor could cost Narcissus his life.

Based on all this, we can conclude that the execution of Silius and Messalina was not at all a consequence of their depravity and violation of the legality of the emperor’s marriage, but occurred as a result of the insidious intrigues of Narcissus.

As for the marriage of Messalina and Gaius Silius, it most likely took place on a legal basis, since Messalina was divorced from Claudius and had every right to tie herself into new marital ties. True, there is a high probability that Claudius did not receive Messalina’s divorce letter (Narcissus could have intercepted it) and therefore was extremely indignant when he learned about the marriage of his legal wife to her lover. Although, if you believe Tacitus, who quotes the words of Narcissus (“Or do you not know that you have received a divorce?”), Claudius still knew about the dissolution of the marriage, but, still burning with passion for his ex-wife, did not interfere with the intrigues of his favorite, hoping with with their help to destroy Silius and return Messalina.

However, Narcissus is known to have ordered the execution of Messalina. It was an illegal murder, decorated with concerns for the interests of the state and the emperor. To justify the execution of Claudius's wife, the intriguer trumpeted throughout Rome about her love affairs and depravity. By the way, Claudius learned about the death of his ex-wife after the fact. Moreover, the emperor was informed about Messalina’s death, without saying whether it was voluntary or violent.

On the day of Messalina's death, Claudius swore in front of the soldiers that he would never marry again, because he was disappointed in family life. “If I do not resist,” said Claudius, “stab me with your own hands!”

But still he could not resist the brilliant Agrippina, the daughter of his brother Germanicus, and therefore his own niece. Claudius was so much in love with Agrippina that he even showed activity unusual for him, wanting to legitimize his relationship with his niece. The fact is that marriages like the one Claudius was about to enter into were considered incestuous and were prohibited by law. The emperor paid certain influential persons to suggest that the Senate oblige Claudius to marry Agrippina, supposedly for the highest good of the state, and to allow such marriages for everyone. After the Senate issued an appropriate decree allowing such marriages, Claudius married his adored niece. Claudius's fourth marriage was the reason for decisive changes in the state: a woman began to rule the empire. As Tacitus wrote, she “administered the affairs of the Roman state out of unbridled self-will, like Messalina; she held the bridle tightly taut, as if it were in a man’s hand.”

Having married Claudius, Agrippina ensured that her husband adopted her child from her first marriage, Lucius Domitius, and appointed him as his heir to the detriment of his own son Britannicus. The emperor adopted Lucius under the name of Tiberius Claudius Nero, after which, fearing that Claudius might change his decree on the succession to the throne, Agrippina decided to kill her husband.

Having poisoned Claudius, Agrippina hid his death from society for several days, during which time she prepared everything for Nero to take power.

This is how the fourth, most unsuccessful marriage of Emperor Claudius ended sadly.

Titles	Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanic
Ruler	Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanic
counted against the gods
Time rules	January 25, 1941 AD - October 13, 1954 AD
Born	August 1, 1910 BC
Died	October 13, 1954 AD
Coin

Claudius was born on August 1, 1910 BC. at Lugdunum in Gaul. He was one of the most educated and enlightened rulers of Rome, who, despite his reluctance, gained power by force. He was the son of the great leader, Drusus the Elder, who died when Kaludiusz was only a year old, and Antonia the Younger. His grandparents were: Mark Antony and Tiberius Claudius Nero and babkami: Octavia and Liwia. He had two older siblings: Germanicus Claudia and Julia Liwillę.

After his father's unexpected death in 9 BC, the emperor's future educational role was drawn up for his mother, Antonia. The number of physical ailments (drooling, stuttering, limping, susceptibility to disease) was born, with which Claudius prevented him from accepting a future of any senior government positions. Family members are believed to be the result of a mental disorder and therefore keep it from the world public. From an early age, Claudius was bullied and humiliated, even by close relatives. In particular, Antonia's mother and grandmother, Liwia treat him like an idiot. His weakness led him in the future to escape death at the hands of Caligula's insane nephew.

Initially, Claudius' development is explained, as mentioned earlier, by his mother, Antonia. But at the age of 2, she found herself under the influence of her grandmother, Liwii. Over time, he noted his interest in studying science and all knowledge. For this, in 7 AD. and hired Livy Sulpiciusa flava Who taught him all the messages, history, which became a great passion for him. Claudius Young taught the Stoic philosopher and orator, Atenodoros Kananites. This is mainly due to his ability to Claudius received good praise, despite his shortcomings in pronunciation.
Having been isolated throughout his childhood and youth, Claudius devoted time to reading to gain extensive knowledge, particularly history and law.

Around 1910 to 1915 AD Claudius married Plaucją Urgulanilla. I assured him twice earlier:
- With Emilia Lepida, distant relative - participation interrupted for political reasons
- With Liwia Medulliną - the relationship ended with the sudden death of the bride on the wedding day
In Urgulanilla he was born a son, Claudius Drusus, who, however, died of suffocation in the first years of his life. In 25 Urgulanilli urodziła D. girl, Claudia, której Claudius did not consider them Cork and ordered já Resolution on the threshold of Urgulanilli. Urgulanilla została later Claudius accused of complicity in the murder of his wife, his brother, obscenity and adultery. Immediately after these events, he divorced his wife.
When the previous emperor, Augustus, died in 14 AD, the new ruler, Tiberius, allowed the 23-year-old Claudia to begin Cursus honorum, So. "Path of Honor" The young man received no consular awards, but when I called them the next year he met with the refusal of Tiberius, Claudius, who discouraged public life. He decided to bury himself in his home and devote all his research to knowledge and creativity.

In 28 AD Claudius married Elia Petynę, with whom he had a daughter, Claudia Antonia. Their marriage, however, was very short, which was due to misunderstandings between the spouses.
After the death of Tiberius in 37 AD, and the throne of his nephew Claudius, Caligula's life changed. The young emperor saw benefits from Claudius. In memory of the honor of his late father, Germanicus in 37 AD appointed Claudius Caligula, next to each other, as a second consul. The young emperor was not in touch with his benevolent uncle. He was often insulted, joked with and publicly ridiculed for his shortcomings.
In 39 AD Claudia Messalina is married to Valerie. They had two children, Octavia (born D. 40) and Bree (born 41 BC). Messalina was worse, and Claudius's most beloved wife. Messalina Ancient sources present a nymphomaniac organizing unbridled fun and leading to the death penalty of former lovers or those who dared to refuse her achievements. Forgot her official marriage ceremony with Gaius Siliuszem served in the absence of Claudius, who remained in the port of Ostia. Narcissus, a freedman of Emperor Claudius, is revealed to have supervised the execution of the Messaliny. Claudius ultimately does not believe all the charges brought against him.

When Caligula, under the influence of illness, turned into a bloodthirsty despot, Claudius began to pretend that he was a fool and a clown, so that the young emperor saw his real enemy from a political opponent. Claudius His intellectual attitude saved him from the danger of internal power struggles in the imperial family. No one foresaw that she could play any political role.

The long and cruel government of "Caligula" led to the fact that the despot was finally assassinated on January 24, 1941 BC. After the assassination of Caligula, Emperor Claudius, the only adult representative of the Julius-klaudyjskiej dynasty, received the Praetorian acclamation as a guard. Soldiers and important people feared Caligula's reaction to the guard, consisting of 300 powerful Germans, having no qualms about killing people. Apparently, when Claudius was found behind the scenes, Praetorius raised him up and proclaimed him Emperor Claudius, against his will. The Germans went to the field where Claudius was, on his knees, and he promised faithful service and protection. Despite the initial opposition of the Senate, feeling its powerlessness in relation to the soldiers, it approved the status. For the first time this openly showed the true nature of pryncypatu - the emperors' power based on military force, when the Senate would be important, was long gone.

Typical of Claudius's reign is the increasing role of freedmen in the exercise of power. The emperor, having no confidence in the circles of senators, entrusted the main role in government and council to the bodyguard of freedmen. Some of them, Narcissus, Callistus, Polybius and Pallas received very influential positions. But Claudia was true to her republican ideals, which he showed in his attitude to the Senate. In addition, do not obsadzał freedmen magistraturze, so as not to cause opposition to the senators not seeing them as equals. The position was mainly occupied by freedmen in the Registry of Claudius, divided into sections. And so Narcissus sat in the office of correspondence, Pallas in the office for the treasury, in the office of Callistus and Polybius was responsible for all other matters.
Claudius, wanting to gain confidence in his military power, took a trip to Britain in 43 AD. To this end, he sent her husband Plautiusa at the head of four legions to England ( Britannia), The land is especially attractive due to its numerous mines and many slaves. Another reason for the invasion was the question of housing Gallic rebel groups on the island. Thus, they remained unpunished by the Roman authorities. Claudius appeared on the island exactly when he finished making any plans to create an offensive on the island. To increase the size of his army, he took with him food specially imported from African elephants. God quickly turned around on the island to produce results, and a few months later, the Senate assured that Claudius' rights had triumphed. In addition, the emperor received Britannica Which was used by his son Britannicus. Fighting on the island continued until 50 BC, when he finally managed to capture and imprison the British commander, Caratacusa. After returning to Rome to celebrate Claudius' victory in 44 AD.
At the same time, the Roman army managed to gain new provinces of Judea, Lycia, Noricum and Thrace. These campaigns were carried out during the reign of Caligula, but only Claudius succeeded in obtaining land.

Claudius, how their government has made a number of investments in the country. He built two water pipelines: Aqua Claudia And began for Caligula Novus Angels, Who in 52 AD in Rome with Porta Maggiore. Moreover, again Aqua Virgo.
Claudius also drew attention to the problem of transport. To do this, they built many roads and canals, and restored too dilapidated debris. It is worth noting the investment from the father of Claudius Drusus: built a canal leading from the Rhine to the sea, and on the road from Italy to Germany. Closer to Rome, Claudius built a shipping canal over the Tiber leading to the new port Portus.
Another, probably the biggest commitment was the dewatering of lakes Fucino What was done to acquire land for cultivation.
After his reign, Claudius carried out many reforms. He continued the changes in the religious sphere initiated by Augustus, cultural, administrative and legal.

In 48 AD Claudius conducted a census of citizens who stated that the Roman Empire had 5,984,072 lives. This meant that in just 40 years this number had increased by 1 million (based on census data as of August).
After the death of the emperor Messaliny collapsed without thinking about remarriage. However, on the initiative of his subordinates, Claudius changed his position. According to the writers of the ancient emperor, transfers, 3 candidates for the new empress: Lolly Pauline, the former wife of Caligula, Elia, the second wife of Claudius, Agrippina, the emperor's youngest niece. Ultimately, the choice fell on Agrippina, probably for political reasons and under pressure from the Senate. Finally, Agrippina's younger marriage to Claudius in 49 AD. His strong personality dominated the last years of the emperor's reign. Reflecting her growing political role, the title of Augusta was granted in the Senate. In addition, her son from her first marriage led to the capture, Nero priority in sequence, to Claudius's own son, Britannicus. Nero was first introduced in 50 AD, and three years later he married the emperor's daughter Octavia. Claudius, who in his old age made many mistakes, turned out to be useless to his wife. In order to take advantage of the situation and fill the throne, Agrippina's son, as sources testify, poisoned Claudius with a dish of mushrooms.

Monday, October 28, 2013 02:01 + to quote book

IMPERATOR · NERO · CLAVDIVS · CAESAR · AVGVSTVS · GERMANICVS · PONTIFEX · MAXIMVS · TRIBVNICIAE · POTESTATIS · XIV · IMPERATOR · XIII · CONSVL · V · PATER · PATRIAE (Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Pontifex Maximus, vested with the power of tribune 14 times, the power Emperor 13 times, five-time consul, Father of the Fatherland).

His vices became the talk of the common Romans; they made many barbs and sarcastic jokes at his expense, but he did not punish any of the wits. He did not consider them his enemies, because none of them encroached on his power... His mother Agrippina, a depraved, cruel and hypocritical woman, laid claim to power and might, and she interfered with him.

Nero was born in Antia, a seaside town located 40 km south of Rome, to Agrippina the Younger and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus. Agrippina was the daughter of Germanicus Caesar and the granddaughter of Drusus Caesar - two members of the family of Emperor Augustus who most fully embodied in the public opinion of Rome all the traditional virtues of the ancient Roman aristocracy. Augustus adopted the children of his wife Livia from his first marriage with Claudius Nero - including the above-mentioned Drusus; he himself was previously adopted by the dictator Julius Caesar. Nero's grandfather thus united in himself and in his descendants - Agrippina and Nero - two of the most ancient patrician families - the Julians, who traced their genealogy from the founders of Rome Aeneas and Romulus, and the Claudii, who at the dawn of Roman history related the first Roman settlers with the Sabines who lived here (Tacitus. Annals. IV, 9). Nero's father, the great-nephew of Augustus (grandson of his sister Octavia), was descended on his father's side from the ancient (attested from the 4th century BC) plebeian family of the Domitians; the clan was extremely branched, represented by a wide variety of family connections, so that among the relatives of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus one finds, in particular, bearers of the most famous names among the “last republicans” - Cato the Younger, Brutus and Cassius.
For the mass Roman consciousness, the antiquity of the clan and the abundance of persons in it, famous for their exploits for the glory of the state, were a living, relevant characteristic of the person who belonged to this clan (Tacitus. Annals. XIII, 1, 2).
Nero's family - in complete contradiction with the morals that actually reigned in it, and with the moral characteristics of its members - in principle and ideally could serve in the eyes of contemporaries as a symbol of the centuries-old continuity of the patrician families of the founders of the City, the bearer of the traditions of the people and its eternal values. Augustus did everything to perpetuate just such an image of her. Nero did everything to destroy it. He was the last emperor of Roman patrician origin and with his activities, the direction of his reforms, his entire appearance, even his death, as if testified to the complete exhaustion of the genealogically embodied primordially Roman moral and political tradition in him. Further attempts could be made to revive it - it became impossible to continue it after Nero.


Childhood
Lucius Domitius was born a little more than six months after the death of Tiberius. Caligula, the brother of Lucius' mother, Julia Agrippina, better known as Agrippina the Younger, was declared Roman emperor. Agrippina spent most of her time at Caligula's court, since the emperor was very close to his sisters, especially the eldest, Julia Drusilla. The reason for this attitude of Caligula towards the sisters lay in the relationships that existed between them. Almost all ancient historians almost unanimously declare that Caligula indulged in debauchery with his sisters, and also did not oppose their promiscuous relationships with other men. Feasts on the Palatine Hill, in which sisters were always participants, often ended in depraved orgies.
Agrippina's marriage was not an obstacle to the life she led. At this time, the young Nero and his father, who was most likely almost 30 years older than Agrippina, lived in a villa between Anzium (modern Anzio, Italy) and Rome. In 38, Caligula's beloved sister Julia Drusilla died.
In 39, both sisters and their lover Lepidus were accused of plotting to overthrow the emperor and seize power in favor of Lepidus. Caligula also accused them all of debauchery and adultery.
Agrippina's participation in this conspiracy made it clear that she viewed Lucius Domitius as a completely legitimate future emperor. She was one of the key figures in the conspiracy, and, if successful, claimed the place of the wife of the new princeps. In this case, Lucius Domitius became the only heir, since Lepidus did not have his own children.
After a short trial, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was sentenced to death and executed. The sisters were exiled to the Pontinian Islands, located in the Tyrrhenian Sea. Caligula appropriated and sold all their property. It was forbidden to provide them with any assistance. To feed themselves, Agrippina and Julia Livilla were forced to dive for sponges to the seabed in the vicinity of the islands, and then sell what they collected.
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, together with his son, despite the exposed conspiracy in which his wife participated, continued to be in Rome or in his country villas. However, in 40, he died of dropsy in Pirgi (modern commune of Santa Marinella, village of Santa Severa, Italy). All his property went to Caligula. Little Nero was given to be raised by his aunt, Domitia Lepida the Younger.
A year later, on January 24, 41, Caligula was killed by the rebel Praetorians. His uncle, who had long been considered mentally handicapped, Claudius, came to power. The new emperor returned his nieces, Agrippina and Julia Livilla, from exile. However, all of Agrippina’s property was confiscated, her husband died and she had nowhere to return. Then Claudius organizes the marriage of Agrippina with Gaius Sallust Passienus Crispus. For this marriage, Gaius Sallust had to divorce another of Nero’s aunts, Domitia Lepida the Elder, to whom he had previously been married.
Guy Sallust is a powerful and respected man in Rome, he became consul twice. Together with Agrippina and Nero they lived in Rome. And although at first Agrippina completely withdrew from politics, Messalina - the wife of Claudius - even then saw in her a serious rival, and in Nero - a rival to her own son - Britannicus. Messalina sends hired killers to the house of Passienus Crispus, who were supposed to strangle the boy while he slept. However, according to legend, the killers retreated in horror when they saw that Nero's sleep at his pillow was guarded by a snake. Messalina continued to try to destroy Agrippina and Nero, but for some reason Claudius did not support his wife’s aspirations in this case.
In 47, Guy Sallust died. A rumor immediately spread throughout Rome that Agrippina poisoned her husband in order to take possession of his wealth. After the death of Crispus, the only heirs to his huge fortune are Nero and Agrippina. Agrippina was very popular among the people. After the death of Sallust, a circle of people dissatisfied with Messalina formed around her. One of the most influential of these was the freedman Mark Antony Pallas, treasurer of the empire who became Agrippina's lover.
In 48, Messalina plotted and attempted to remove Claudius from power in favor of her lover, Gaius Silius. This coup plan was prepared by her out of fear that Claudius would transfer power not to her son, Britannicus, but to Nero. However, the coup attempt was suppressed, and Messalina and Silius were executed.
After the death of Messalina, Pallas proposed Agrippina to Claudius as his new wife. Her candidacy was also supported by another influential freedman, who exposed Messalina and ordered her arrest - Tiberius Claudius Narcissus. After the execution of Messalina, he feared the revenge of Britannicus if he became emperor. If Agrippina became Claudius’s wife, then it was clear that the next emperor would most likely be Nero.
At first Claudius hesitated. However, the persuasion of Pallas, mainly about strengthening the dynasty, as well as the passion, drive and beauty of Agrippina did their job. By that time, Agrippina had just turned 33 years old. Pliny the Elder writes that she was “a beautiful and respected woman, but ruthless, ambitious, despotic and domineering.” He also says that she had wolf fangs, which are a sign of good luck.
The emperor agreed with the words: “I agree, since this is my daughter, raised by me, born and raised on my knees...”. On January 1, 49, Claudius and Agrippina got married.

Agrippina the Younger, bust in the Cologne Museum

Heir
Not yet being the emperor's wife, Agrippina upset the engagement of Claudius' daughter, Claudius Octavia, to Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus, her distant relative. Together with the censor Lucius Vitellius, they accused Silanus of adultery with his sister, Junia Calvina, to whom one of Vitellius' sons, Lucius, was married.
Silanus was forced to commit suicide, Calvina received a divorce and was sent into exile. Thus, Claudia Octavia became free for Nero. Later, in 54, Agrippina ordered the death of Silan's older brother, Mark, in order to protect Nero from the revenge of the Silans.
In 50, Agrippina persuaded Claudius to adopt Nero, which was done. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus became known as Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. Claudius officially recognized him as his heir, and also betrothed him to his daughter, Claudia Octavia. At the same time, Agrippina returned the Stoic Seneca from exile to become the teacher of the young heir. Among philosopher-mentors, Alexander of Aigues is less often mentioned.
At that time, Agrippina's main activity was aimed at strengthening the position of her son as an heir. She achieved this mainly by placing people loyal to her in government positions. With her full influence on the emperor, this was not difficult. Thus, Sextus Afranius Burrus, a Gaul who not so long ago was Nero’s usual tutor, was appointed to the key post of prefect of the Praetorian Guard.
Agrippina deprives Britannicus of all rights to power and removes him from the court. In 51, she ordered the execution of Britannicus's mentor, Sosebius, who was outraged by her behavior, the adoption of Nero and the isolation of Britannicus. On June 9, 53, Nero married Claudia. However, the emperor begins to become disillusioned with his marriage to Agrippina. He again brings Britannicus closer to him and begins to prepare him for power, treating Nero and Agrippina more and more coolly. Seeing this, Agrippina realized that Nero's only chance of gaining power was to do it as quickly as possible. On October 13, 54, Claudius died after eating a plate of mushrooms offered by Agrippina. However, some ancient historians believed that Claudius died a natural death.

Still from the film Roman Empire: Nero

The first years of reign: Nero and Agrippina Monday, October 28, 2013 02:15 ()

On the day of Claudius's death, the Praetorians recognized Nero as emperor. Under the name Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, the 16-year-old newly-minted emperor received from his mother almost unlimited power over the empire.
In the early years of his reign, being very young, the emperor was completely under the influence of Agrippina, Seneca and Burrus. It got to the point that Agrippina expressed a desire to sit next to the emperor at official ceremonies (for example, receiving ambassadors), and only the intervention of Seneca saved Nero from such shame.
In 55, young Nero first opposed the will of Agrippina. Seneca and Burrus were dissatisfied with Agrippina's complete influence over the emperor, and a split occurred between the former allies. At the same time, Nero became close to the freedwoman Claudia Acta. Being, most likely, brought by Claudius from his campaigns in Asia Minor, she knew the palace rules quite well. Seeing that Nero was interested in her, Burr and Seneca supported this connection in every possible way, hoping to influence Nero through Acta.
Agrippina was against her son's mistress and publicly reprimanded Nero for getting involved with a former slave. However, Nero had already left her obedience. Then Agrippina began to weave intrigues, intending to declare Britannicus the rightful emperor. But her plan failed. In February 55, Britannicus was poisoned on the orders of Nero.

Nero and Seneca, monument in Cordoba, Spain. Sculptor - Eduardo Barron

After this, Nero, listening to his mentors, accused Agrippina of slandering him and Octavia and expelled her from the palace, depriving her of all honors, as well as her bodyguards. When Agrippina tried to stop him, he threatened that if she disobeyed, he would abdicate power and go to Rhodes himself. Following Agrippina, Pallas also lost his place at court.
The fall of Pallas was a seemingly complete victory for the party of Seneca and Burra, and the defeat of Agrippina. However, both Burr and Seneca were accused along with Pallas. Charges were brought against Burrus and Pallas of treason and conspiracy to transfer power from Faustus Cornelius to Sulla Felix, and Seneca was accused of embezzlement. Seneca's eloquence helped him to deflect all accusations from himself and Burr, and they were not only completely acquitted, but also retained their position. However, both of them were given a clear signal that from now on Nero would not tolerate pressure on himself. So he became the full-fledged ruler of the state.

Nero and Poppaea Sabina, Egyptian tetradrachm

In 58, Nero became close to Poppaea Sabina, a noble, intelligent and beautiful representative of the Roman nobility. At that time she was married to Otho, a friend of Nero and the future emperor. Agrippina saw in her a dangerous and calculating rival in the struggle for power. She tried with all her might to return Nero to Claudius Octavia, or at least Acte. But Nero achieved the divorce of Poppaea and Otho, and sent the latter out of sight as governor of Lusitania. When Poppaea became pregnant in 62, Nero divorced Octavia, accusing her of infertility, and married Poppaea twelve days later.
At the end of 58, rumors spread that Agrippina was trying to remove her son from power and transfer it to Gaius Rubellius Plautus, the son of Julia Livia, daughter of Livilla. In the female line, Rubellius Plautus was a direct descendant of Tiberius. Upon learning of this, Nero decides to kill Agrippina.
He tried to poison her three times, but gave up after learning that she was taking theriac, sent a freedman to stab her, and even tried to bring down the ceiling and walls of her room while she slept. However, she happily escaped death.
In March 59, in Baiae, Nero invited her to take a trip on a ship, which was supposed to collapse on the way. However, Agrippina was almost the only one who managed to escape and swim to the shore - her past as a sponge diver affected her. In anger, Nero ordered to openly kill her.
Agrippina, seeing the soldiers, understood her fate and asked to be stabbed in the stomach, where the womb is located, thereby making it clear that she repented of having given birth to such a son. Nero burned her body that same night. He sent a message to the Senate composed by Seneca, which said that Agrippina unsuccessfully tried to kill Nero and committed suicide; The Senate congratulated Nero on his deliverance and ordered prayers to be performed. The emperor later allowed slaves to bury her ashes in a modest tomb at Misenum (now part of Naples).
Then Nero admitted more than once that the image of his mother haunts him at night. In order to get rid of her ghost, he even hired Persian magicians. There were legends that long before Nero became emperor, Agrippina was told by the Chaldeans that her son would become emperor, but at the same time, would cause her death. Her answer was: “Let him kill, as long as he rules.”

Domestic policy Monday, October 28, 2013 02:18 ()

Before his rapprochement with Acta, Nero did not show himself in the public sphere, completely transferring the functions of governing the state to the Senate. During the period of late 54 - early 55, he himself was engaged in visiting brothels and taverns. However, after the death of Britannicus and the actual release from the care of his mother, his attitude towards administrative duties changed.
From 55 to 60 Nero became consul four times. According to most Roman historians, during these years the emperor showed himself to be an excellent administrator and prudent ruler, in contrast to the second half of his reign. Almost all of his actions during this period were aimed at making the lives of ordinary citizens easier and strengthening his power through popularity among the people.
At this time, the Senate, at the insistence of Nero, passed a number of laws limiting the amount of bail and fines, and legal fees. Nero also sided with the freedmen when the Senate was hearing a bill to allow patrons to once again take away the freedom of their freedmen clients. Moreover, Nero went further and vetoed a law extending the guilt of one slave to all slaves belonging to one master.
During the same period, he tried to limit corruption, the scope of which had a very negative impact on ordinary residents of the state. After numerous complaints about the poor treatment of the lower classes by tax collectors, the functions of tax collectors were transferred to people from these classes. Nero prohibited public receptions for any magistrates and procurators, justifying this by the fact that such manifestations of prosperity embittered the people. There were a large number of arrests of officials on charges of corruption and extortion.
To further improve the standard of living of ordinary people, Nero intended to abolish all indirect taxes. However, the Senate managed to convince the emperor that such actions would lead to bankruptcy of the state. As a compromise, taxes were reduced from 4.5% to 2.5%, and all indirect and hidden taxes were announced to citizens. Customs duties were also abolished for merchants importing food by sea.
These actions brought Nero great popularity among the people. To further popularize his figure, Nero built public gymnasiums and several theaters in which Greek troupes performed. In Rome, gladiator fights of unprecedented scale began to be held frequently. In 60, the grandiose festival “Quinquennialia Neronia” (lat. Quinquennialia Neronia) was held for the first time, dedicated to the fifth anniversary of Nero’s reign. The festival lasted several days and consisted of three parts - musical and poetic, when readers, reciters, poets and singers competed; sports, which was an analogue of the Greek Olympics; and equestrian competitions for riders. The second "Quinquinalia Neronia" took place 5 years later - in 65, and was dedicated to the tenth anniversary of the emperor's reign.
The festival was planned to be held every five years - translated from the Latin Quinquennial - "Every fifth".

Reply With quote In 53, as a result of an uprising fueled by the Parthians, Radamist was overthrown and forced to flee. The Armenian throne was occupied by the younger brother of the Parthian king Vologeses I - Tiridates. With the help of Roman money and the unusually cold winter of 53-54, Radomist managed to force the Parthians to leave, silence the dissatisfied, and regain the throne. While the Parthians were deciding what to do next, Claudius died in Rome. Not seeing a serious opponent in the 16-year-old Nero, Vologeses decided on open military action and at the beginning of 55 again, already openly, returned the Armenian throne to Tiridates.
Rome's reaction was adequate. The military leader Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, who had distinguished himself under Claudius in Germany, was appointed proconsul of Asia, Galatia and Cappadocia. Under his command were two legions III Gallica and VI Ferrata. Two more legions, X Fretensis and XII Fulminata, were at the disposal of Gaius Durmius Ummidius Quadratus, the proconsul of Syria.
For almost three years, Corbulo negotiated with representatives of Vologeses, preparing his troops. But at the beginning of 58, the Romans were suddenly attacked by the Parthians. With the help of local pro-Roman tribes, the Romans managed to repel the attack and proceed to hostilities.
During 58-60 Corbulo and Quadratus captured the capital of Armenia, Artaxata, and the following year crossed the desert in northern Mesopotamia and crossed the Tigris. After the capture of Tigranakert, a pro-Roman ruler, the great-great-grandson of Herod the Great, Tigran VI, was finally placed on the Armenian throne.
In 60, after the death of Quadratus, Corbulo became procurator of Cappadocia. In the spring of 62, the Parthians began to try to recapture Tigranakert, and Corbulo, due to lack of reinforcements, had to conclude a truce with Vologeses. In the summer of 62, a new commander finally arrived to replace Square - Lucius Caesennius Petus.
Having crossed the Euphrates, Corbulo was able to invade Mesopotamia when he received news that Paetus was trapped and surrounded at Rendea near Arsamosata. However, arriving in Melitene, Corbulo was late. Negotiations were started in the winter but ended in vain.
In the spring of 63, Corbulo, at the head of four legions, re-entered Armenia. However, due to the stalemate (Vologeses and Tiridates realized that the war could no longer be won, and Corbulo did not want to fight in the desert), an agreement was again concluded (in Rendea) on the condition that Tiridates becomes the Armenian king, but as a vassal of Rome, and should head to Rome to receive the royal tiara from the hands of Nero.
This war made Nero very popular in the eastern provinces. And the terms of peace with the Parthians were observed for more than 50 years - until Trajan invaded Armenia in 114.
The second fairly serious military conflict that occurred during the time of Nero was the uprising of the Iceni queen Boudicca in the lands of Britain, recently annexed to the Roman Empire. The uprising was suppressed by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, who was the governor of Britain in the years 58-62 with the rank of propraetor.
The uprising began in 61. The rebels took Camulodunum (modern Colchester, England). The city was besieged by Quintus Petillius Cerialus, but the IX Legion was defeated and Cerialus had to flee. The rebels set out for Londinium (modern London, England). Suetonius Paulinus also headed there, having interrupted the campaign against the Druids in Mona (modern Anglesey), but decided that he did not have enough forces to defend the city. The city was abandoned and plundered by the rebels. The next victim to fall under the wrath of the Britons was Verulamium (modern St. Albans). The total number of victims exceeded 80,000 people.
Suetonius Paulinus grouped the forces of the XIV Legion with units of the XX Legion, as well as volunteers dissatisfied with the actions of the rebels. In total, Paulinus managed to gather 10,000 men, while Boudicca's troops numbered about 230,000.
Paulinus fought the battle at present-day Watling Street in the West Midlands. Roman tactics (the battle took place on a narrow road, with a forest on both sides - and, thus, the Romans could hold back the numerically superior enemy forces with a narrow front, while the archers from the forest inflicted irreparable losses) and discipline prevailed over the numerical superiority of the Britons. The Britons cut off their own escape route by placing a convoy with members of their families behind their army. Tacitus writes that the Romans killed more than 80,000 Britons, in turn losing no more than 400 people. Boudicca, seeing the outcome of the battle, poisoned herself.
In general, it is worth noting that Nero and his advisers wisely selected people for key positions in the state, pursuing the goals of strengthening the country. The governors in various border provinces were extraordinary personalities who later had a very significant influence on Roman history. So, in addition to Corbulo, Quadratus and Paulinus, during the time of Nero, Servius Sulpicius Galba, Gaius Julius Vindex, Lucius Verginius Rufus, Marcus Salvius Otho, Titus Flavius ​​Vespasian came to the fore in the leading roles.
It was Vespasian who was sent in 67 by Nero to suppress the Jewish uprising that broke out a year earlier in Judea. The uprising was suppressed after the death of Nero, in 70. This appointment can be considered key in the fate of the empire - after the suicide of Nero, the Jewish legions declared Vespasian emperor and from there he set off on a campaign against Rome, which was crowned with success.

Marble statue of Tirdat I, created in Rome in honor of his visit (Louvre Museum) Reply With quote To quote book

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