When writing written work, the student clearly follows a number of rules. This is the structure of the work, its design, content. And, if the goals and objectives become more or less clear, thanks to a large number information, then the student often has a question about the formulation of such two concepts as “object of research” and “subject of research”.

The commission members are mostly interested in the formal side of the issue. Often the unspoken, and sometimes public, task for the student is to select a specific object for monitoring and, based on it, formulate the subject of monitoring. At the same time, the university management, providing methodological instructions, gives them scientific explanation these two terms. In addition to manuals, there are also state regulations in which scientific language two concepts are described.

Definitions of two concepts

Following these definitions, the object of monitoring is understood as a phenomenon that manifests its actions regardless of the progress of the student’s research. The subject of monitoring is only a part of the entire object. However, the subject of monitoring may have practical and theoretical significance for the study.

Typically, an object consists of several objects, but most students make the mistake of considering only one type of object. The result is a biased assessment of the entire object as a whole. To review an object, a number of actions must be taken. These steps will be the subject of research.

An object usually means what the student will study. This could be an organization or a study of any social or psychological relationships. Having a topic in hand, and therefore a goal, the student needs to find an object to monitor.

This can be done by studying information and literary sources. This process is necessary in order to clearly understand whether the found object corresponds to the science being studied. When studying a topic using the example of a specific organization, it is sometimes impossible to cover the entire field of activity as a whole. At this stage, the subject of research, for example, a department, appears in the light.

1. In the thesis functional purpose The subject is the study of properties, narrowly focused characteristics, and its versatility. This can be explained more clearly using a separate example. When studying hotel management, the subject of its monitoring is the HR department. Given full characteristics subject (department), positive and negative sides its functioning.

At the same time, the activities of the department can be viewed from several angles. At the beginning of the work it is given general definition, in expanded form and gradually during the writing process graduation project it narrows, but does not decrease in volume.

2. When studying a specific area of ​​doing business, which will become the object of monitoring, but the legal basis on which this area of ​​activity is carried out becomes the subject of monitoring.

3. Using the example of another organization, we study social relations. The organization is the object of monitoring, and the personnel department, namely the relationships between employees, will be the subject of research.

If you do not fully understand these two concepts “object” and “subject”, then the final result in the thesis will incorrectly state the topic, that is, the goal that, it would seem, was achieved will not be achieved. IN best case scenario the topic will be revealed, but not completely. This becomes the main reason when, when defending a diploma project, upon completion, a student hears from members of the committee that the topic is not fully covered and requires additional improvements.

* There are a number of other nuances, without taking into account which you can fail. For example, the process of researching a subject should occur only within the limited framework of the selected monitoring object.

* The monitoring object answers the question “What to study?”. The subject of monitoring answers the questions: “How to conduct research?”, “What to associate this process with?”, “Which aspects of the object being studied will become interesting?” and so on.

* It is considered a gross mistake and even a violation, the lack of logical thought between the subject and the object of monitoring.

* In addition, a very significant point is the relevance of the subjects and the object being studied equally. Their study should be interesting and have at least a bit of novelty. Therefore, you should not choose as a goal for your thesis a topic that has been known to everyone for a long time and is almost an axiom. In this case, the student will not have to count on a good grade, even despite the full disclosure of the topic.

* The members of the commission are aware of the tricky nature of these two concepts and most often the questions that follow the monologue of the future graduate student relate specifically to subjects, an object, and sometimes goals and objectives.

If questions arise about the thesis in general and on certain points in particular, the student always has the right to seek help from the supervisor, who oversees the entire process of writing the thesis project.

The object and subject of research are one of the main categories that reflect the methodology of the process of scientific knowledge.

Object of study- a process or phenomenon that generates problematic situation and favorites to study.

Subject of study– everything that is within the boundaries of the object of study in a certain aspect of consideration (ibid.). The subject of research is considered as a side of the object, which is directly identified in it through the prism of the problem.

The object and subject of research are related to each other as general and specific. The subject is isolated from the object as its part, which becomes the most important in the research process.

It is very important to pay attention to the correspondence of the topic, object, subject and purpose of the study. It is the subject of the research that determines the topic and purpose of the course and diploma work.

The subject of psychological research can be: mental properties, states, processes, functions, types of behavior, activity and communication, spatial, temporal and intensity characteristics of the phenomenon, etc. .

Examples of wording of the object and subject of psychological research:

Example 1:

The object of the study is the personality of a high school student

The subject of the study is self-attitude as a factor in an individual’s coping strategies in a situation of professional self-determination

Example 2:

Object of study – organization

The subject of the study is corporate culture as a factor in motivating the work of employees of an organization.

Example3:

Object of study – interpersonal relationships in a teenage group

The subject of the study is self-esteem and anxiety as factors in the sociometric status of a teenager in a group.

Purpose, objectives and hypotheses of the study

Purpose of psychological research– the desired final result, thanks to the achievement of which a scientific problem of a theoretical-cognitive or applied nature is resolved.

Typically, the following types of goals are formulated within the framework of coursework and dissertations:

Identification of the relationship or mutual influence of mental phenomena.

It is important to note that when setting such a goal, it is not enough to establish only the fact of the existence of a relationship. It is necessary to specify this goal in tasks: determining its scope, direction of sustainability; identifying the holistic structure of relationships and the place of the connection that is the focus of the researcher’s attention.

Example 1:To identify the relationship between employee labor motivation and type corporate culture organizations.

Example 2:To study the influence of the leader’s image on group cohesion and the socio-psychological climate in the organization.

Creation of classification, typology

The development of a classification involves, first of all, the determination of criteria (bases) for classification, which are formulated based on an analysis of psychological literature. The identified types (groups) should reflect the existence of significant differences in the manifestation of the phenomenon being studied.

Example 1:Determine the types of ideas about a successful and lucky person.

Example 2:Construct a typology of employees depending on the level of commitment to the organization.

Determining the characteristics of a phenomenon

The basis for setting such a goal may be: 1) the incompleteness of the description of a mental phenomenon discovered by the researcher or noted in the literature, the study of which is quite relevant in this moment; 2) contradictions between the empirical data of different authors.

Example:To study social ideas about a successful and lucky person.

Discovery of a new (different) nature of a phenomenon

The researcher outlines the class of phenomena that will be the subject of his consideration, notes the inconsistency, insufficient explanation of their essence, introduces new terms and concepts related to the phenomenon being studied.

Example:To determine the personal determinants of coping behavior in the situation of job loss.

Studying the dynamics of the phenomenon

Most often, in psychological studies of students, the age dynamics of a certain phenomenon are studied. It is important to remember that this type of research combines the use of two types of organizational methods: 1) the “cross-sectional” method, which makes it possible to study the age-related characteristics of a certain phenomenon; 2) the method of “longitudinal sections” (longitude), aimed at studying the dynamics of the phenomenon in the course of personality development.

Example:Explore the dynamics of responsibility in a junior school age

In addition to those listed above, the following can be selected as goals for higher-level psychological research (research in a master's thesis):

ü Description of a new phenomenon, effect.

ü Selection general patterns functioning of the phenomenon.

ü Adaptation of psychodiagnostic methods.

ü Creation of a psychodiagnostic technique.

Research objectives

Defining objectives is the choice of ways and means to achieve the goal of the study. Objectives divide the research goal into subgoals (second-order goals). The sequence of tasks reflects the logic and nature of the empirical research of the course (thesis) work.

It is important to pay attention to the fact that the wording of the paragraphs of the empirical part devoted to the description of the results is identical to the wording of the individual research objectives. The number of paragraphs of the empirical part devoted to the presentation of results, as a rule, corresponds to the number of tasks put forward.

Typically, the formulation of research objectives begins with verbs: “identify”, “define”, “study”, etc.

Example 1

1. Determine the predominant type of work motivation of the organization’s employees.

2. Study the dominant type of corporate culture, as well as the relationship between the existing and preferred types of corporate culture in the organization.

3. Study the influence of the existing and preferred types of corporate culture of the organization on different kinds labor motivation of employees (internal, external positive, external negative).

The wording of the paragraphs of the empirical part devoted to the description of the results corresponding to the objectives of the study:

1. Study of the work motivation of the organization’s employees.

2. Study of the corporate culture of the organization.

3. Studying the influence of corporate culture on the work motivation of the organization’s employees.

Example 2

Formulation of research objectives:

1. Study the level of anxiety of spouses.

2. Research the degree of marital satisfaction of spouses.

3. Determine the relationship between the level of anxiety and the degree of satisfaction with the spouses’ marriage.

Formulation of paragraphs of the empirical part

1. Studying the level of anxiety of spouses.

2. Study of marital satisfaction of spouses.

3. Study of the relationship between the level of anxiety and the degree of satisfaction with the marriage of spouses.

Thus, the titles of the paragraphs of the empirical part in the table of contents of a course or dissertation work indicate the tasks posed by the author and the sequence of their solution (see Appendix 2).

Research hypotheses

A hypothesis is a scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requires experimental verification and theoretical justification in order to become reliable. scientific theory.

As a rule, theoretical, empirical and statistical hypotheses are put forward in students' coursework and theses.

Theoretical hypothesis– a scientific theoretical assumption that reflects certain patterns of functioning of mental phenomena. This provision may concern the relationship, mutual influence, structure of phenomena, etc. The theoretical hypothesis is formulated on the basis of an in-depth analysis of the object and subject of research, using existing psychological knowledge. A theoretical hypothesis reflects an insufficiently theoretically proven psychological fact, a pattern, which is the basis for the formulation of empirical hypotheses.

Example 1:The type of corporate culture is a factor in shaping the work motivation of an organization’s employees.

Example 2:Ideas about professional success determine the real professional success personality.

Empirical hypothesis– this is a scientific assumption, verified experimentally (empirically). Using a set of empirical hypotheses, it is carried out step by step check validity of the put forward theoretical hypothesis. Empirical hypotheses are formulated based on the research objectives: it is desirable that each objective corresponds to at least one (maybe more) empirical hypothesis.

Empirical hypotheses are formulated in probabilistic form and should be short and concise.

Example formulations of empirical hypotheses:

1. External positive work motivation will prevail among the organization’s employees.

2. The dominant type of corporate culture of the organization will be the hierarchical-market type.

3. Significant differences in the existing and preferred types of corporate culture of the organization will be identified.

4. The adhocratic type of corporate culture will have a significant impact on the internal work motivation of the organization’s employees.

5. The market type of corporate culture will have a significant impact on the external positive work motivation of the organization’s employees.

6. Clan and hierarchical types of corporate culture will have a significant impact on the external negative work motivation of the organization’s employees.

Information about statistical hypotheses can be found in the paragraph devoted to presenting the results of an empirical study.

Most often, when writing a scientific paper, problems arise with the formulation of the subject; the object of research is much easier to determine. An object is an area, phenomenon, sphere of knowledge, process within which the research will be carried out. In other words, it is a part of reality that the researcher will study. The object can have not only scientific work, but also any other activity or scientific direction. For example, in sociology the object is society, – the human psyche, – man.

The object of research should be closely related to the topic of scientific work, its characteristics and definitions should be considered and studied during the research. An object, as can be understood from this name, always exists objectively, regardless of the researcher and point of view.

Subject of study

The subject of research is a more detailed and narrow concept, which must be part of the object and cannot go beyond its scope. A subject is a specific problem in a chosen field of activity, examined from a certain angle under certain conditions. Scientific work cannot study the entire object of research at once; it examines it from some angles, reveals its characteristics and properties. Depending on these features, the subject of research is determined.

For example, a house as an object of study can be considered under different angles: the architect can study its structure and architectural style, will identify the suitability of the soil for the selected type of foundation and engineering characteristics, the economist will review the estimates, and the person living in this house will be interested in the layout and quality of the housing. Depending on the point of view of the object, the subject of research is distinguished.

The subject of research does not always exist objectively; it can represent relationships, interconnections, conditions, cause-and-effect relationships. It can only be in the researcher’s head and depends on his knowledge of the object. For example, if the influence of music on the growth of plants is studied, then the object in this case will be plants, and the subject will be the dependence of their growth on certain music.

The subject is the laws of the psyche in different conditions and its influence on human behavior and functioning. The subject is the human biological system, its physiology, considered with the participation of the categories of health and disease.

Perhaps the most important elements research activity can be considered the object and subject of research. Currently, there are many different approaches to defining these concepts. In order to consider the main ones, let us turn to the reference literature.

"An object. 1. That which exists outside of us and independently of our consciousness, the external world, material reality.

2. A phenomenon, an object towards which some activity is directed. Object of study."

"Item. 1. Any material phenomenon, thing.

2. What the thought is directed towards, what constitutes its content or what some action is directed towards.”

N. E. Yatsenko believes that “Object - 1. In philosophy - any phenomenon that exists independently of human consciousness. 2. In a broad sense - an object, a phenomenon that a person seeks to know and towards which his activity is directed.” “Subject - 1. Any material phenomenon, thing. 2. That to which a thought, action or feeling is directed.”

Summarizing the above, we can formulate working definitions of the concepts “ an object" And " subject of study».

An object - this is a process or phenomenon that gives rise to a problem situation and is taken by the researcher for study. An object is that part of scientific knowledge with which the researcher deals.

Objects of research can be both material and intangible in nature. Their independence from consciousness lies not in the fact that they are necessarily material or energy formations (they can also be phenomena of mental life, spiritual culture), but in the fact that they exist regardless of whether it is known or unknown about them something to people. It is necessary to distinguish current(or real) and potential objects of research.

Current objects research are all things, objects, properties and relationships included in human practice, in the culture of a particular people.

Potential objects research, on the contrary, phenomena that have not yet entered into culture, knowledge about which is very vague and speculative, reflects not the nature of existing reality as such, but such forms of its probable existence, the possibility of which is allowed by already accumulated experience and culture. In this regard, along with real objects, a world of virtual objects arises. It includes all those objects that in their totality form the spiritual culture of society.

Unlike objects, the subject of research of individual sciences is not integral natural and social phenomena, but their individual aspects and properties, their individual “projections” into human consciousness.

Item - this is what is within the framework, within the boundaries of the object.

Subject of study- this is that aspect of the problem, by studying which we understand the whole object, highlighting its main, most essential features .

This is clearly revealed when considering the existing classifications of sciences in a particular area. It can be said that separate scientific disciplines(and, accordingly, individual academic subjects of secondary and higher education) are busy studying individual “slices” of the objects under study.

In biology - morphology And physiology, systematics and evolutionary theory, etc.

In studying public life- economics, politics, sociology.

In language learning - linguistics, phonetics, syntax, etc.

The variety of possible “slices” of studying objects gives rise to a multi-subject nature of scientific knowledge. Each of the objects creates its own conceptual apparatus, its own specific methods research, your own language.

The subject of the research most often coincides with the definition of its topic or is very close to it.

The object and subject of research as scientific categories are correlated as general and particular.

It is necessary to emphasize that the object and subject of research, as well as its goals and objectives, depend not only on the chosen topic, but also on the researcher’s plan .

The distinction between object and subject is purely epistemological problem. It always arises where, for some reason, the methodological requirement to use strictly defined concepts ceases to work, and always where the subject of the science to which this activity relates has not yet been identified and justified.

The distinction between object and subject arose in connection with research in the field of epistemology. By studying the objective world, certain aspects of it, a person develops objective knowledge about the surrounding reality. Each subsequent researcher, before starting to study some real object, is obliged to study the body of knowledge existing in society that represents this object. In this case, the body of knowledge becomes the subject of study.

Establishing similarities and differences between individual objects real world, a person actually identifies individual objects, defines them as objects, as potential objects for his activity, for study. In this case, objects are also an objective reality, because their existence does not depend on man.

Depends on the person only the very moment of highlighting the object. But, having identified an object, a person turns it into an object of activity. This is the peculiarity of a person to transform an object into the subject of his activity. Individual objects isolated from objective reality become objects of human activity, and each of these objects, under appropriate conditions, can become an object, a special object of a specific science.

Primary is the object of research (a broader concept), secondary- a subject of research in which a certain property of the object of study is highlighted. Some researchers do not see the difference in these concepts and identify the subject and object of research.

Sometimes the object and subject of research are defined almost identically, but this approach does not seem entirely correct.

Having determined the subject and object of research, the scientist must give them a comprehensive description and, in the process of scientific work, constantly keep them in mind, formulating goals, objectives, methods, and most importantly, final conclusions based on the research results.

So, the object of study in our case is:

Any organizations, or their associations(trust , corporation , holding, industry, etc.) having a management system (CS),

- separate systems And subsystems, which are formed in a given organization in the process of its functioning (social, economic, technical, organizational, production, scientific, political, cultural, personnel, etc.),

- set of elements, of which these systems and subsystems consist, i.e. this is what requires a control system (CS).

- structures organizations (the order of relationships between elements);

- internal and external environment in which this organization operates;

For example , when studying JSC "Molot", the object is the JSC itself, and when studying the housing and communal services of a city, the object becomes the city in question.

The internal environment can be characterized by the composition elements of the research object:

- resource(material and technical base, including objects and means of labor, labor resources, information, financial resources),

- organizational(technology, management methods and systems, organizational structure),

- performance results object, for example, in the form of products and services.

The state of the internal environment of an object can also be assessed by its potential. Information about the internal environment is necessary for researchers to clarify the goals of the organization (including social ones), determine the internal capabilities and potential that the organization can count on in competition.

External environment includes the environment of the object under study, i.e. everything that is not directly included in it, but interacts with it and influences it.

Allocate at least two levels of external environment:

- microenvironment - the immediate environment that directly affects the object (direct impact environment, i.e. suppliers, shareholders, labor resources, laws, government regulatory structures, trade unions, consumers, competitors) and

- macro environment - distant environment that indirectly affects the object (environment of indirect influence, i.e. factors that may not have a direct immediate impact, but indirectly affect the functioning of the object of study - the state of the economy, scientific and technical progress, social, cultural, political changes, group interests external structures, changes in other countries affecting the enterprise, etc.).

External environment can be characterized by:

- interconnectedness factors external environment,

- level of interconnection, with which a change in one factor affects others;

- complexity, determined by the number external factors, to which the object of study can react;

- mobility- relative speed of change in the external environment of the object;

- uncertainty- a function of the quantity and relative accuracy of information on a specific environmental factor; instability - frequency of change.

It is obvious that researchers need to objectively identify the impact of both internal and external environmental factors on the organization and adequately take them into account.

So, subject of study in our case it is what the researcher’s attention is directed to and what is the content of scientific study, consideration, knowledge and resolution.

Subjects of research there may be problems, tasks and questions , arising during the construction, operation and improvement of the control system, when using appropriate methods, principles, processes, relationships, elements, subsystems and other components of the system.

In particular, issues related to the implementation of general management cycle functions: forecasting, planning, organizing, coordinating, regulating, motivating, controlling, issues related to the process of developing, making and implementing management decisions, etc.

For example , When studying the management system of OJSC Molot, the subject of research is the processes and relationships in the management system of OJSC.

As part of our training course the object of study is control system, and the subject of research - Problems, arising in this system.

Formulating a problem entails choosing a specific object research . The object can be anything that explicitly or implicitly contains a contradiction and gives rise to a problematic situation. The object of psychological research is what the process of cognition is aimed at. An object is understood as a specific mental phenomenon: process, state, property, attitude, personality characteristics, activity.

It is erroneous to indicate the category of subjects (“students” as an object) primary classes", "married couples", "patients with alcohol addiction", etc.). From a formal point of view, this seems correct, but it becomes unclear what kind of psychological reality the psychologist studies. Uncertainty and vagueness in the description of an object leads to similar deformations in the definition of the subject of research.

Object of study there may be certain forms of behavior, activities of people (or animals), mental phenomena (processes, states, properties). For example, the object of research may be the self-esteem of a primary school student. In this case, the subject of the study will be the factors in the formation of self-esteem of a primary school student. The object of research can be the educational process, the educational activity of a schoolchild, the process of mental development at a certain age level.

Subject of study - certain aspects, properties, characteristics of an object that are of scientific interest in connection with the problem being solved. Subject of research certain psychological factors, mechanisms, patterns may become. If the objects of research are mental processes, then the subject can be structure, relationships, mechanisms. If the object of research is mental states, then its subject will be their manifestations, causes, mechanisms of occurrence, and consequences. If the object of research is mental properties, then its subject may be factors and mechanisms of development, connections with other properties.

The subject of the research determines the purpose and purpose of the work, clarifies the position, point of view, view of a particular mental phenomenon.

The object and the subject are related to each other as the general and the particular. The object of research is always broader than the subject. The object of research is formulated briefly, in two or three words, the subject - in greater detail. Both the object and the subject must be reflected in the title of the research topic.

For example: Topic title: Strategies for overcoming life difficulties in old age.

Object: strategies for overcoming life's difficulties. Subject: features and manifestations of strategies for overcoming life difficulties in older people. Topic title: Features of the individual style of activity of a primary school teacher, depending on work experience. Object: individual style of activity of a primary school teacher. Subject: features of the individual style of activity of a primary school teacher, depending on professional experience.

3.4. Determination of the purpose, objectives and hypotheses of the study.

Based on the study of literature on the problem, the student poses purpose and objectives of empirical research.

The purpose of the work characterizes its expected result. What results of scientific and practical work can be expected in psychology? Here are some of them, quite typical:

1. Study of a mental phenomenon.

2. Description of a psychological phenomenon.

3. Study of the structure of a mental phenomenon (or factors influencing it).

4. Identification of psychological differences in subjects belonging to different groups.

5. Identification of the relationship between mental phenomena in the same subjects.

6. Study of the dynamics of age-related development of certain mental processes, properties, states.

7. Study of changes in mental phenomena under certain conditions, for example, as a result of correctional work.

8. Generalization, classification, typology of any data.

9. Development and testing (or adaptation) of scientific research methods.

10. Development or adaptation to new conditions of a psychodiagnostic procedure.

11. Development or adaptation to new conditions of methods of consultation, correctional or developmental psychological work.

The purpose of the work is usually: “Study...”, “Identify...”, “Consider...”, “Identify...”, “Characterize...”, “Prove...” " In any case, the work must contain a certain novelty (the search for new knowledge, new research methods or psychological practice, or the application of existing knowledge, research methods to new conditions) and a creative approach to solving the problem.

Stylistically, goals can also be formulated as “Analysis...”, “Study...”, “Identification...”, etc. In any case, the goal of the work must contain a certain novelty(search for new knowledge, or new research methods, or new methods of practical psychological work, or the application of existing knowledge, research methods or practical psychological work to new conditions).

Purpose of the study - this is an idea of ​​​​what the result will be, what exactly will be obtained at the end of the study: a theoretical model, a description of a new phenomenon, identification of the structure, methodology, etc. A goal is a general direction, a path at the end of which there is a final destination - a result.

If the goal is formulated as theoretical, then the main attention is paid to the study of scientific literature on this issue (review and analytical research); if the goal is related to the study of new phenomena or occurrences, the development of original diagnostic methods or psychocorrection, then it takes on a more pragmatic character. In other words, the purpose of the work determines its type (see the section “Types of coursework and dissertations”).

Goal in scientific work linguistically formulated as noun

1. Study of the characteristics of children’s intellectual readiness for school.

2. Identification of the main difficulties in interpersonal communication that arise among adolescents in an orphanage.

3. Determination of types of character accentuations in deviant adolescents.

Achieving the research goal is possible through successive steps, logically connected to each other in a chain in which each link serves as a means of holding other links. Such sequential steps are called tasks. Each stage of the research has its own tasks. They guide the researcher towards achieving the goal. Tasks serve to test a hypothesis, and as many of them are put forward as necessary to test it.

The objectives of the work specify the goal of research or innovative work in the field of practical psychology and divide its achievement into certain stages. Consistently solving the assigned tasks, the researcher moves towards achieving the goal. Typically, it is recommended to formulate no more than 5 problems in a thesis research. Tasks are formulated in the same style as the goal: to study..., to identify..., etc.

The research objectives are divided into two groups: theoretical And empirical.

Theoretical problems usually solved by analysis, synthesis, search for similar and different, abstraction and generalization, classification and systematization theoretical and empirical data available in the literature. Theoretical problems can also be solved using logical inferences, when a researcher, based on knowledge available in the literature, logically derives new scientific knowledge. It should be noted that not every literature review can be called a theoretical study. The thesis usually contains one theoretical task - identifying a problem that can be solved empirically. Therefore, justification of a hypothesis or research goal is, in essence, a solution to this theoretical problem by analysis, comparison and synthesis of literature. The main conclusion in solving this problem is to determine what knowledge is missing in modern science; Your empirical research will be aimed at finding them.

Empirical problems are solved by collecting and analyzing data obtained using empirical methods, such as observation, experiment, conversation, questioning, measurement, as well as methods of qualitative and quantitative processing of this data, such as typology, correlation, comparison, factorization.

When formulating the objectives or research questions of a study, it is advisable to assign serial numbers to them. This makes it easier for readers to understand the relevant material.

Formulation of tasks presupposes their precision and clarity. They must be specific and formulated in such a way that appropriate methods can be selected or developed for them (for example, psychodiagnostic tests or psychocorrectional techniques).

Tasks in linguistic form are written as Verbs(“describe”, “explain”, “study”, “establish”, “compare”, “develop”, etc.).

1. Conduct a comparative analysis of the concepts of transference in modern psychodynamic therapy.

2. Describe the main personality characteristics of children who abuse volatile organic substances.

3. Establish what values ​​are leading for psychology students.

4. Show how the child’s sociometric status determines his level of anxiety.

A common mistake students make is replacing tasks with a research plan. In this case, the tasks are formulated approximately like this:

1. Study the literature on the stated topic.

2. Select appropriate methods.

3. Form a sample of subjects.

4. Carry out mathematical processing of the obtained data.

5. Draw conclusions.

This is fundamentally wrong. Not only is there no scientific novelty here, but the very train of thought of the researcher is not clear, there is no connection with the research problem, the object and subject matter put forward by the hypotheses. Most often this occurs with a thoughtless, mechanistic approach to preparation. course work, when the analytical review is replaced by a compilation, or, at best, an abstract, and the research part is reduced exclusively to testing, which is also carried out anyhow, and then the data obtained is “fitted” to the theory. Doing this is strictly not recommended! Not only will the defense of your work raise questions that you cannot answer, but the practical recommendations you develop will mislead the people who follow them.

Hypothesis - the main and most important methodological tool of research. Based on the analysis of the scientific problem and the stated purpose of the study, a research question (or hypothesis). The research question defines what the research intends to study. It can also be formulated as a scientific hypothesis, which is formulated as a proposed solution to a problem. Scientific hypothesis must satisfy the principles falsifiability(if it is refuted during the research) and verifiability(if it is confirmed during the study). In order to satisfy these requirements, it must be fully revealed in simple empirical hypotheses. The construction of a general scientific hypothesis is not mandatory for research. To answer the question posed in the study, an empirical hypothesis (or two or three empirical hypotheses) may be quite sufficient.

Hypothesis describes the result that the researcher expects to obtain. In essence, this is a prediction. The hypothesis must be verifiable, that is, testable (confirmable). Therefore, the concepts (constructs) that it uses and the corresponding propositions of a presumptive nature must be sufficiently clear, specific and operationalizable. It is necessary to determine experimental and mathematical-statistical criteria under which the researcher can state whether the hypothesis was confirmed or not. Confirmation of hypotheses is based on facts, arguments and logical conclusions.

Empirical (or experimental) hypotheses must be tested by collecting and processing data. Accordingly, experimental (empirical) hypotheses are described as characteristics of certain variables and their relationships. These variables must be operationalized, that is, formulated in terms of the specific experimental procedure and indicators being measured. It is always possible to conduct an experiment (or other type of study) to test them directly.

Let's consider several principles for constructing simple empirical hypotheses.

An empirical hypothesis must specify two variables and the type of relationship expected between them. For example, consider the variables “psychomotor coordination” and “self-esteem.” The researcher expects to find high self-esteem among those with good psychomotor coordination and low self-esteem among those with poorer coordination. The hypothesis can be formulated as follows: “There is a direct relationship between the level of psychomotor coordination and the degree of self-esteem.” In this case, the word “positive” can be used instead of the word “direct” while maintaining the meaning of the hypothesis.

Consider another example of a hypothesis: “Students differ in their level of general anxiety and in their ability to form friendships.” As we see, two variables are named, but the expected relationship between them is not formulated. An improved version of this hypothesis might clarify that the researcher believes that those with higher generalized anxiety have lower ability to form friendships: “In college students, there is an inverse relationship between the level of generalized anxiety and the ability to form friendships.” Instead of the words “inverse dependence,” the word “negative” can be used while maintaining the meaning of the hypothesis.

When there is an independent variable, name the specific dependent variable. In some studies, the independent variables are a set of actions taken by the researcher. The result that follows from this is the dependent variable. The purpose of such a study (experiment) is to determine the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. The hypothesis in this case must name a specific dependent variable. As an example, consider the following hypothesis: “The purposeful development of spatial representations of primary schoolchildren is an important factor in their successful acquisition of educational knowledge.” In this example, the independent variable is the purposeful development of spatial representations. However, the expression "an important factor" suggests that there is a dependent variable that is not specified. An improved version of the hypothesis would specify that certain measures of learning performance be considered as the dependent variable. For example: “Students who participate in activities aimed at developing spatial concepts will show higher learning outcomes on indicators such as ... than students who do not participate in such activities.” The purpose of experiments is to determine the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. Therefore, it is not enough to say “influence” or “greater influence.”

If a relationship between variables is expected only among a certain category of people, it is necessary to name that category in the hypothesis.IN In the following example, “preschoolers” are defined as the category of interest to the researcher: “In children preschool age there is a direct connection between the level of psychomotor coordination and the degree of self-esteem.”

The empirical hypothesis must be quite specific. Consider the following hypothesis: “There is a direct relationship between computer literacy among administrators and their use of computers.” A refined version of this hypothesis might be: “Among administrators, there is a direct relationship between the amount of training they have had in using computers and the number of administrative tasks they perform using computers.” The improved version of the hypothesis is more specific than the first. It specifies the meaning of the terms “computer literacy” (that is, training in the use of computers) and “computer use” (that is, the number of administrative tasks that are performed using computers).

An empirical hypothesis is formulated in one sentence. IN In the following example, this rule is violated: “Social anxiety worsens student communication in the classroom. As a result, students with high anxiety will be less successful in these classes.” An adjusted version of the hypothesis could be: “Students with high level students with social anxiety will exhibit lower levels of communication in class than students with low levels of social anxiety.”

If a comparison is made in a hypothesis, the elements being compared must be named. In comparisons, terms such as “more”, “less”, “higher”, “lower” are usually used. The following example of a hypothesis is unsuccessful: “First-graders with low educational achievements are more dependent on the psychological support of adults.” IN in this example the comparison is incomplete and therefore forces the reader to make assumptions about the group (or groups) to which low-achieving first graders are compared. Improved hypothesis options:

“First-graders with low educational achievements are more dependent on psychological support from adults than students with average achievements”;

“First-graders with low educational achievements are more dependent on psychological support from adults than students with high achievements”;

“First-graders with low educational achievements are more dependent on psychological support from adults than students with high and average achievements.”

These options are better because they use the word more. In the examples above, please note that different comparisons are possible (Pyrczak, INrise, 2005, b. 13).

Since most hypotheses deal with the behavior of groups of people, the use of the plural is usually preferable. Bad example: "In retirement, a husband or wife will experience less stress when he or she is satisfied with the marriage than when he or she is less satisfied with the marriage." In this example, the singular words (husband or wife) refer to the study participants. Since the hypothesis will be tested using groups of husbands and wives, an improved version of this hypothesis is more appropriate: “Spouses who are more satisfied with their marriage will experience less stress in retirement compared to those who are less satisfied with their marriage.”

The hypothesis should contain the minimum words or phrases that are necessary to express the meaning (and should not contain unnecessary words). Let us compare, for example, two hypotheses:

1) “Those primary school teachers who teach in experimental schools have higher self-esteem than those who teach in traditional primary schools.”

2) “Elementary school teachers who teach in an experimental program have higher self-esteem compared to those who teach in a traditional program.”

As you can see, the second example of a hypothesis formulation is shorter, but its meaning is quite clear.

A hypothesis usually names the variables in the order in which they occur or are measured. A failed example of a hypothesis: “Higher generalized anxiety will be observed among adults who have experienced longer periods of sensory deprivation.” An improved version of the hypothesis could be stated as follows: “Adults who have experienced long periods of sensory deprivation will show higher generalized anxiety compared to those who have experienced less deprivation.”

Avoid using the words “significant” or “significance” in hypotheses. The terms “significant” and “significance” generally indicate the significance of a statistical test. Since most empirical studies use such criteria, mentioning them in hypotheses is unnecessary. Competent readers will usually assume that the issue of statistical significance will be addressed in the section where the quantitative results of the study are presented.

It is necessary to avoid using the word “proves” in a hypothesis. Empirical research is not proves results for the following three reasons. First, empirical research is usually based on specific samples from the population being studied, and therefore it is possible that no sample is fully representative of the population in question. Secondly, it cannot be ruled out that no test or measurement procedure is completely valid and reliable. Finally, it cannot be ruled out that the study exhibited some form of unintentional bias (either by the researcher or the participants). This bias can have various sources. For example, the control group was randomly tested in a noisier environment than the experimental group. Or the research assistant inadvertently suggested certain responses to respondents in an opinion survey. Thus, researchers should not naively assume that they are proving anything through empirical research methods. Instead, they must recognize that they are collecting data that provides only a certain degree of confidence about the conclusions. The more a researcher has done to reduce errors, the more confident he or she can be that the results obtained are valid. The research hypothesis should assume the existence of certain relationships between variables, and not between indicators of the corresponding measurement scales. Measures obtained through tests, questionnaires, observations, or experimental procedures are merely measures of the relevant variables. This means that using other adequate measurement procedures, the researcher will obtain the same relationships between these variables. Scientific psychological research studies relationships between variables, not between quantities. Hypotheses should be formulated accordingly. It is incorrect to formulate the hypothesis as follows: “The higher the self-esteem indicators according to the “ Ladder" for 4th grade boys, the higher their aggressiveness scores test of frustration reactions." It is correct to formulate the hypothesis as follows: “The higher the self-esteem of 4th grade boys, the higher their aggressiveness.”

The hypothesis should avoid making precise statistical predictions. Accurate statistical predictions can rarely be justified. Moreover, they are almost impossible to confirm. Therefore, it is inappropriate to indicate the exact percentage of the studied indicators in the compared samples or the level of significance of the statistical conclusion expected by the researcher when using a certain criterion.

Empirical hypotheses can be of four types: A) hypotheses about the presence of a phenomenon; B) hypotheses about the existence of a connection between phenomena; C) hypotheses about the presence of a causal relationship between phenomena; D) hypotheses about the presence of differences in phenomena. A classification including the first three types was proposed by V.N. Druzhinin (2001). I believe that hypotheses of type (D) are also quite typical for empirical research.

Testing Type A Hypotheses consists in identifying the fact of the existence of a certain mental phenomenon, property or sign. Are there or are not phenomena of extrasensory perception, is there a phenomenon of “risk shift” during group decision-making, how many symbols does a person hold simultaneously in short-term memory? These are all hypotheses about facts.

Type B hypotheses- about connections between phenomena. Such assumptions include, for example, the hypothesis about the relationship between the intelligence of children and their parents, or the hypothesis that extroverts are more prone to risk, and introverts are more cautious. These hypotheses are tested in a measurement study, more commonly called a correlational study. Their result is the establishment of a linear or nonlinear relationship between processes or the detection of the absence of one.

Type B hypotheses- about cause-and-effect relationships. An experimental hypothesis includes the independent variable, the dependent variable, the relationships between them, and the levels of additional variables.

Type D hypotheses- hypotheses about differences (quantitative or qualitative) in the manifestation of a certain trait (or mental phenomenon) in people of a certain category.

The types of hypotheses discussed can be used as a basis for formulating research hypotheses. Familiarity with the typology of R. Gottsdanker can also help formulate hypotheses.

He identifies the following options experimental hypotheses:

A counterhypothesis is an experimental hypothesis that is an alternative to the main assumption. Occurs automatically;

A competing experimental hypothesis is an experimental hypothesis about the absence of influence of the independent variable on the dependent one. Tested only in a laboratory experiment;

A precise experimental hypothesis is an assumption about the relationship between a single independent variable and a dependent variable in a laboratory experiment. Testing requires isolating the independent variable and “purifying” its terms;

An experimental hypothesis about a maximum (or minimum) value is an assumption about at what level of an independent variable the dependent variable takes on its maximum (or minimum) value. A “negative” process, based on the idea of ​​two basic processes that have an opposite effect on the dependent variable, becomes stronger than the “positive” one when a certain (high) level of the independent variable is reached. Tested only in a multilevel experiment;

An experimental hypothesis about absolute and proportional relationships is an accurate assumption about the nature of a gradual (quantitative) change in the dependent variable with a gradual (quantitative) change in the independent one. Tested in a multi-level experiment;

A single-relationship experimental hypothesis is an assumption of a relationship between one independent and one dependent variable. To test an experimental hypothesis with one relationship, a factorial experiment can be used, but the second independent variable is a control variable;

A combined experimental hypothesis is an assumption about the relationship between a certain combination (combination) of two (or more) independent variables, on the one hand, and a dependent variable, on the other. Tested only in a factorial experiment (Gottsdanker, 1982).

A study may have multiple hypotheses. In this case, they are formulated in the order in which they were checked. They can be included in one sentence, if it remains sufficiently concise and clearly expresses their meaning, or formulated in separate sentences. In this case, it is advisable to designate them (hypotheses) with numbers or letters.

A hypothesis may indicate the direction of a relationship between variables, or it may not indicate the nature of that relationship. However, hypotheses that indicate the direction and nature of the relationship between variables are more typical, since the author usually has a definite opinion on this matter.

If the researcher does not know what kind of relationship between variables can be expected, then it makes sense to formulate a goal or question that is posed in the study instead of a hypothesis. Let's assume that we have no scientific basis to assume who is more aggressive in certain life situations: men or women. However, we assume that certain differences exist. In this case, you can formulate a non-directional hypothesis: “There are differences in the degree of aggression in men and women” or a goal: “Identify differences in the degree of aggressiveness in men and women.” You could also formulate a research question: “Are there differences in the degree to which men and women express aggression?”

If research is being conducted that is based on qualitative descriptions rather than quantitative measurements, then stating a research purpose or research question is also more appropriate than stating a hypothesis. For example, the question of differences in the aggressiveness of men and women may concern not so much the degree of their aggressiveness as the forms and areas of manifestation of aggression. In this case, it is more appropriate not to conduct a quantitative study, but to qualitatively describe the relevant forms of behavior. In this case, the research question might be: “What are the differences in aggression between men and women?”

With the help of a hypothesis, new knowledge is obtained and new ideas are formulated.

Hypothesis - this is a scientific assumption arising from a theory that has not yet been confirmed or refuted Hypothesis - a statement about the expected relationship between two or more variables In psychological research, a hypothesis is a reasonable assumption about the structure of psychological objects, the nature of the connection between the psychological phenomena being studied and possible approaches to solving psychological problems A hypothesis is always an assumption, prediction or assumption, the truth or falsity of which has yet to be verified by experience. A hypothesis is a bridge between existing facts and those that are yet to be obtained, the known and the unknown.

A hypothesis is not born out of nowhere. It is often preceded by guesses, which cannot yet be called a hypothesis if they do not contain a logical justification based on already proven facts, provisions or laws.

A hypothesis is formulated based on the problem.

A well-formulated hypothesis must meet at least three basic requirements:

1) it must be adequate to the question or problem posed;

2) must take into account existing knowledge and not contradict previously established scientific facts;

3) it must be available for verification.

Moreover, the hypothesis must be

Formulated correctly(i.e. cannot initially be assessed as true or false, since it is just a problematic statement regarding the subject of research);

Differ simplicity(should not contain various kinds of restrictions, assumptions or conditions);

- don't be trivial(i.e., not reduced to platitudes, truisms or self-evident facts) such as: “Parental education style influences the formation of a teenager’s character”, “Marital satisfaction changes depending on the stage of the family cycle”, etc.

A hypothesis can be general, specific or individual.

General hypothesis - this is a scientifically based assumption about the causes, laws, interconnections of social phenomena, an explanation of the patterns of human mental activity. The formulation of a general hypothesis on the subject of research occurs on the basis of a preliminary analysis of the object.

For example, in the work of V.G. Dobrokhleb “Socio-psychological dissatisfaction of the older generation as a result of economic stratification,” the hypothesis was put forward that social dissatisfaction is caused by a mismatch between the social aspirations and the available resources of the older generation.

Partial hypothesis examines parts of objects, and single - assumptions regarding individual facts.

An example of a particular hypothesis from the course work of a student studying the educational motivation of students of a vocational lyceum with day and evening education: “Motivation for learning is influenced by social expectations associated with obtaining a profession: subjects with evening education, who already have some experience of working at an enterprise, in are more motivated to study compared to full-time students who are yet to find employment.”

There are two main types of hypotheses: descriptive and explanatory.

Descriptive hypotheses are used in correlation studies and are aimed at studying structure of the object being studied(an assumption about the nature of the connections in it, about a typical set of factors) and its functions(assumption of close connections).

An example of a general descriptive hypothesis from a thesis devoted to the study of gender factors in alcoholism in women: “The masculinity factor is more closely related to the parameters of aggressive behavior in women than femininity.”

Explanatory hypotheses represent assumptions about cause-and-effect relationships in the object under study, characterize the conditions under which consequences arising from certain causes are realized.

An example of a particular explanatory hypothesis: “It is assumed that the parental attitude of the type of “authoritarian hypersocialization” in disabled children suffering from cerebral palsy leads to the formation of “learned helplessness syndrome” in them.

The following stages are distinguished in the construction and development of a hypothesis:

1) identifying a group of facts that do not fit into previous theories or hypotheses and must be explained by a new hypothesis;

2) formulating a hypothesis that explains these facts;

3) isolating from this hypothesis all the consequences arising from it;

4) comparison of the consequences extracted from the hypothesis with existing observations, experimental results, scientific laws;

5) transformation of a hypothesis into scientific knowledge or theory, if all the consequences derived from the hypothesis are confirmed and no contradictions arise with previously known laws of science.

Hypotheses are tested both through active experimentation and by finding correlations between quantities whose relationship is of scientific interest.

Linguistically, hypotheses include the following words and phrases: “It is assumed that...”, “If..., then...”, “Apparently, one should expect...”, “Probably...”, “ The statement about...”, “One should expect...”, etc. is checked.