The development of culture in the second half of the twentieth century. scientific knowledge and explanation of the world. Systems of social and spiritual values. ideological currents. Religion and the Church. In the second half of the twentieth century. International social movements
After the Second World War, the most important issue was the post-war order of the world. To solve it, it was necessary to coordinate the positions of all countries participating in the anti-Hitler coalition. It was necessary to implement the measures recorded in the documents signed in Yalta and Potsdam. The preparatory work was entrusted to the Council of Foreign Ministers established at the Potsdam Conference. In July-October 1946, the Paris Peace Conference was held, which considered the draft peace treaties prepared by the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs with the former European allies Nazi Germany– Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Romania, Finland. On February 10, 1947 they were signed. The treaties restored the pre-war borders with some modifications. The volume of reparations and the procedure for compensation for damage caused to the allied states were also determined. Political articles obligated to provide all citizens with human rights and fundamental freedoms, to prevent the revival of fascist organizations. The USSR took an active part in resolving all issues. In general, the peace treaties were fair and contributed to the independent, democratic development of the states with which they were concluded. Nevertheless, the differences that emerged made it impossible to settle the German problem peacefully on a mutually acceptable basis. And in 1949 the split of Germany became a historical fact. Alienation between the great powers increased. Ideological differences and various doctrines began to play a dominant role in international relations. Western countries were extremely negative about totalitarian socialism. The USSR, in turn, was also hostile to capitalism. The influence of the parties on international relations and on their weaker subjects increased more and more. The USA and the USSR considered themselves leaders placed by the course of history at the head of forces defending various social and economic systems.
The geopolitical situation changed dramatically. The revolution of the 1940s in Eastern Europe, the conclusion by the Soviet Union with the states of this region of treaties on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance formed a new system of international relations. This system was limited by the framework of states, the development of which proceeded under the conditions of the operation of the Stalinist model of socialism with all its integral features.
The aggravation of relations and the aggravation of the political situation in the world also occurred in connection with the support of the Soviet Union for the just struggle of the colonial and dependent countries for their liberation. The metropolises in every possible way hindered the national liberation movement. In 1949, the people's revolution in China won, leading to a radical change in the geopolitical situation in Asia, which increased the anxiety of the United States and other Western countries. All this strengthened the distrust of the two superpowers in each other, exacerbated all the existing contradictions.
A global rivalry between the USSR and the USA emerged. Both Churchill's speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, and the Truman Doctrine put forward in March 1947 were perceived in the USSR as an open declaration of a "cold war" that lasted more than 40 years. During all this time, the rivalry between the two great powers did not develop into a hot war, which gave reason to call this period the "cold war". It has drawn the whole planet into itself, split the world into two parts, two military-political and economic groups, two socio-economic systems. The world has become bipolar. A peculiar political logic of this global rivalry has arisen – “whoever is not with us is against us”. In everything and everywhere, each side saw the insidious hand of the enemy.
The Cold War brought militarism in politics and thinking to unprecedented proportions. Everything in world politics began to be evaluated from the point of view of the correlation of military force, the balance of armaments. Western countries adopted a bloc strategy that kept confrontation in international relations for many years. Most of the states that accepted the Marshall Plan signed the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) in April 1949. A unified armed force was created under the command of American military leaders. The creation of a closed military-political grouping of an ideological character, directed essentially against the USSR and its allies, had a negative impact on the development of international relations.
The US policy "from a position of strength" met with a harsh response from the USSR and caused an aggravation of international tension. In 1949, the US nuclear monopoly was abolished. After the creation of thermonuclear weapons in the 1950s, and after that the means of delivering them to the target (intercontinental ballistic missiles), the USSR made every effort to achieve military-strategic parity with the United States, which was realized at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s. The number of military blocs grew. In 1951 the military-political group ANZUS emerged. A "security treaty" was concluded between the US and Japan. In 1954, the SEATO bloc was created. In 1955, another closed group was formed - the Baghdad Pact. After Iraq left it, this bloc became known as CENTO. Fearing for their security, the USSR and the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, in response to the agreement of Western countries on the remilitarization of the FRG and its admission to NATO, concluded in May 1955 in Warsaw a multilateral Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance. The signatory states provided for the provision of immediate assistance by all means in the event of an armed attack in Europe against one or more of the Warsaw Treaty member states.
A huge danger to peace on Earth was fraught with international conflicts in various regions, which threatened to escalate them into war. In June 1950, the Korean War broke out and lasted three years. For eight years after the war, France waged war in Indochina. In the autumn of 1956 Great Britain, France and Israel committed aggression against Egypt. In 1958, the United States undertook an armed intervention in Lebanon, and Great Britain - in Jordan. The most dangerous international crisis arose in the autumn of 1962 in connection with the situation around Cuba, which brought humanity to the brink of nuclear war. The Caribbean crisis was resolved thanks to a compromise between the USSR and the USA. The US aggression in Indochina has become protracted. It was the most brutal war of the second half of the 20th century. Vietnam has become a testing ground for the most sophisticated means of warfare, created by highly developed US industrial technologies. The US attempt to involve its allies in the war and give it the character of an international action failed. However, some countries participated in the war on the side of the United States. The enormous assistance rendered to Vietnam by the USSR, the support of the heroic Vietnamese people by all peace-loving forces forced the United States to conclude an agreement on ending the war and restoring peace in Vietnam. The Middle East remained a dangerous hotbed of conflict. The complex contradictions and intransigence of the parties led to several Arab-Israeli wars and for a long time ruled out the possibility of a peaceful settlement in this region.
However, in these difficult decades, humanity has become more and more clearly aware that a new world war is not inevitable, that the efforts of progressive forces can stop humanity's slide into a nuclear catastrophe.
The 1950s and 1960s were marked by an arms race on an unprecedented scale. Huge material, intellectual and other resources were wasted on the development and production of ever new means of warfare. At the same time, there was an extremely acute shortage of them to solve socio-economic problems in most countries of the world. In 1960, the USSR proposed to the Session of the UN General Assembly to consider the main provisions of the treaty on the general and complete disarmament of states under strict international control. Western countries rejected this initiative, however, the first step towards warming international relations was taken. In August 1963, Great Britain, the USSR and the USA signed the Treaty on the Prohibition of nuclear testing in the atmosphere, in outer space and underwater.
The ever-increasing arms race, especially nuclear arms, was bringing humanity to a fatal point, and huge efforts were needed to stop this negative process. The active position of the USSR and its allies aimed at improving the international situation, the efforts of the non-aligned movement, the political realism of the leaders of a number of Western countries have brought positive results. From the beginning of the 1970s, international relations entered a phase of detente. In March 1970, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons came into force. By the beginning of the 1990s, more than 135 states had signed it. For the European region, the Treaty between the USSR and the FRG, concluded in August 1970, was of great importance.
In 1972–1974, intensive negotiations were held on highest level between the USSR and the USA, which led to the signing of a number of important political documents. "Fundamentals of Relations between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America" contained a platform for transferring bilateral relations to a qualitatively new level of their radical improvement.
In the same period, the Treaty between the USSR and the United States on the limitation of anti-missile defense systems (ABM) was concluded, and the Interim Agreement on Certain Measures in the Field of Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (OCB-1) was signed.
The improvement of relations between the two superpowers created the prerequisites for strengthening security and developing interstate cooperation on the European continent. The initiatives of the USSR and other socialist countries played a big role in this. Of no small importance was the change in the position of the FRG on questions of European policy. The coalition government of the Social Democrats, headed by Chancellor Willy Brandt, proposed a "new eastern policy", the core of which was the recognition of the post-war realities that had developed in Europe and the normalization of relations with the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. This gave impetus to the development of the process of strengthening pan-European security. In 1973, Helsinki hosted multilateral consultations of 33 European states, the United States and Canada on the preparation of a pan-European Conference. On July 30 - August 4, 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) was held in Helsinki. The leaders of 35 states signed the Final Act, which fixed the agreed principles of relations between the countries participating in the Conference, determined the content and forms of cooperation between them, and measures to reduce the risk of armed conflicts. Growing interest in developing the process started in Helsinki was shown by subsequent meetings of the CSCE participating states in Belgrade (1977-1978), Madrid (1980-1983), Stockholm (1984-1987), Vienna (1986-1989). d.), Paris (1990), Helsinki (1992).
The 1970s and 1980s were marked by an unprecedented growth in industrial, scientific and technical ties between Western countries and the USSR and other socialist countries. France, Great Britain, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Greece, the Federal Republic of Germany and a number of other states concluded promising programs and agreements with the USSR. However, it should be noted that in the late 1970s and early 1980s the international situation escalated. The political course of the United States towards the USSR sharply tightened with the coming to power in January 1981. administration of R. Reagan. In March 1983, he launched the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Tensions culminated in the autumn of 1983 as a result of
The territory of the USSR shot down a South Korean airliner with passengers on board.
The growth of international tension was also associated with the foreign policy of the United States and other Western countries. Almost all regions of the planet have been declared a sphere of vital US interests. Many have experienced political, economic, and often military pressure from the United States. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Iran, Lebanon, Libya, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Grenada and other countries became objects of intervention. Tensions also increased in connection with the introduction of a limited contingent of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.
The changes that took place in the USSR with the coming to power in 1985 of new leaders made it possible to substantiate the foundations of new political thinking at the state level and begin their practical implementation. This led to a radical renewal of the foreign policy of the USSR. The central ideas of the new political thinking were: the idea of the priority of universal human interests over class, national, social; the idea of the interdependence of mankind in the face of the threat of rapidly impending global problems; the idea of freedom of choice of social structure; the idea of democratization and de-ideologization of the entire system of international relations.
The new philosophy of the world made its way through concrete steps. Real confirmation of this was the development and deepening of the political dialogue between the USSR and the USA on all key issues of world politics and bilateral relations.
The Soviet-American talks at the highest level in Geneva (1985), Reykjavik (1986), Washington (1987) and Moscow (1988) led to an important result. In December 1987, the ROSMD Agreement was signed, and in June 1988, the ROSMD Agreement came into effect. This is the first agreement in history to provide for the destruction of two classes of nuclear weapons under strict international control. The result was a significant improvement in Soviet-American relations. Their further qualitative development occurred as a result of negotiations at the highest level in Washington (May-June 1990) and Moscow (July 1991). Of exceptional importance was the signing of a bilateral treaty on the limitation and reduction of strategic offensive arms. The balance of the treaty was in the interests of strengthening strategic stability and reducing the likelihood of a nuclear conflict. However, in this direction there are huge opportunities for moving forward and a more significant reduction in strategic offensive arms.
The settlement of Germany's relations and the signing of the relevant agreement on September 10, 1990 played an important role in eliminating tension in international affairs both on the planet as a whole and in Europe. In practice, this treaty drew the final line under the results of the Second World War.
Subsequently, new acute problems arose in international affairs. The collapse of the Yugoslav Federation, and then the USSR, led to the emergence of new regional conflicts that have not been resolved to date. The geopolitical situation in the world has changed, the system of international relations between the socialist states has ceased to exist. The countries of Eastern Europe reoriented towards the West. In July 1997, at the NATO summit in Madrid, it was decided to expand the alliance to include three states of the former Warsaw Pact - the Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary. Bringing NATO's military structure closer to most of the CIS states could change the geopolitical situation and could undermine the system of arms limitation treaties. Such a development of events may complicate the creation of a new European structure and destabilize the entire system of international relations. The war in the Balkans, other conflicts in the European region, the difficulties of the transition period in the countries of Eastern Europe and in the post-Soviet space pose a threat to security in Europe. This threat is complemented by aggressive nationalism, religious and ethnic intolerance, terrorism, organized crime, and uncontrolled migration. AT last years the struggle for control over decision-making on a global scale is intensifying. The greatest attention "centers of power" focus on activities that allow you to control the main financial, intellectual and information flows. The importance of control over economic processes and the development of the entire social sphere is rapidly growing. All this requires huge new efforts to preserve and strengthen peace and international security.
Entering the 21st century, humanity is faced not only with new global challenges, but also with a changed geopolitical situation. Remaining the only superpower in the world, the United States presents its leading role as a necessity, dictated not only by American national interests, but also by the desire of the world community.
The use of force in Iraq and Yugoslavia, the expansion of the North Atlantic Alliance, the use of force in other regions of the planet demonstrate the desire to establish absolute US hegemony in the world. China, Russia, India, and many independent states that are and will continue to resist hegemonism will hardly agree with this. In the current situation, the true security of mankind is not connected with the deepening of confrontation between countries and peoples, but with the search for new ways and directions of comprehensive and mutually beneficial cooperation that can ensure the preservation and flourishing of human civilization.
Scientific and technological revolution of the second half of the twentieth century.
After the end of World War II, qualitatively new processes are taking place in the world: scientific and technological progress is now at the heart of successful development. Science has finally become the leading factor in development social production, direct productive force. The period of human development in the post-war period is called the scientific and technological revolution (NTR).
A significant impetus to the beginning of the scientific and technological revolution was given by World War II, during which the belligerents created fundamentally new systems of weapons and military equipment: the atomic bomb, jet aircraft, jet mortar, the first tactical missiles, etc. These inventions were instantly introduced into production and eventually set the direction of the scientific and technological revolution. Feature of the world order in the second half of the twentieth century. contributed to the development of science and technology. A confrontation between the systems of capitalism and socialism has developed in the world, which, ultimately, has resulted in a fierce arms race. Secondly, the colonial system of the developed capitalist countries collapsed, which ended in the 1960s. New conditions for the development of the economy, new needs, as well as a significant backlog of the war era in the field of applied and technical sciences became the stimulus for a sharp breakthrough in scientific and technological progress.
The prerequisites for scientific and technological revolution were created by the scientific discoveries of the first half of the 20th century, in particular: in the field of nuclear physics and quantum mechanics, the achievements of cybernetics, microbiology, biochemistry, polymer chemistry, as well as a high technical level of production development. Thus, science began to turn into a direct productive force, which is a characteristic feature of the scientific and technological revolution.
Scientific and technological revolution has an all-embracing character, influencing all spheres not only of economic life, but also of politics, ideology, way of life, spiritual culture, and people's psychology. There are usually two stages in the NTR:
I stage- 40-60s. 20th century The main direction in the development of scientific and technical thought at this stage was the integrated automation of production, control and management, the creation of microprocessor technology, the discovery and use of new sources of energy (mastering energy atomic nucleus), space exploration, the advent of television, the development of chemistry, biotechnology, and genetics.
Automatic control and automatic regulation have become the prevailing trend of industrial development. The machine gained the ability to independently perform a long chain of complex operations. The role of man in this case is reduced to the design and creation of the machine, as well as to maintaining it in working condition. Programmable automation and the use of computers are the highlights of modern life.
By this time, the emergence of robotics - the science of machines that replace a person and automatically perform tasks. The practical principles of robotics were formulated by the Englishman S. Kenward in 1957.
The main discoveries and inventions of the first stage of scientific and technological revolution:
- television, transistors, computers, radar, rockets, atomic bomb, synthetic fibers, penicillin (1940s);
- hydrogen bomb, artificial satellites of the Earth, jet passenger aircraft, electric power plant based on a nuclear reactor, machine tools with numerical control (CNC) (50s);
- lasers, integrated circuits, communication satellites, express trains (60s).
The boundary between the two stages of scientific and technological revolution is the creation and introduction of fourth-generation computers into the national economy, on the basis of which complex automation was completed and the transition to a new technological state of all sectors of the economy began.
II stage since the mid 70s. 20th century and continues to the present. The main content of this second wave of scientific and technological revolution (it is also called the technotronic revolution) was the mass computerization of production, the development of science-intensive and the curtailment of traditional industries, the introduction of energy and resource-saving technologies, the growth of the service sector, improving the quality of life, as well as functional changes in science itself.
Progress in science and technology has been rapid and often unpredictable. The branch of electronic engineering developed very quickly: from traditional vacuum electronics (illuminating and receiving-amplifying lamps, kinescopes, night vision devices) to solid-state electronics (semiconductor diodes and transistors, various integrated circuits). The revolution of electronic devices made it possible to make a revolution of electronic systems, the emergence of modern televisions, personal computers, microprocessor control.
The main discoveries and inventions of the second stage of scientific and technological revolution:
- microprocessors, fiber-optic transmission of information, industrial robots, biotechnology (1970s);
- ultra-large and bulk integrated circuits, ultra-strong ceramics, fifth-generation computers, genetic engineering, thermonuclear fusion (1980s).
The accelerated development of scientific and technological progress and the introduction of its achievements into production was stimulated by the desire of large national corporations in the conditions of domestic and international competition to ensure a steady increase in the profitability of production. An important role in the scientific and technological revolution was played by the rivalry of two military-political blocs: NATO (led by the United States) and the Warsaw Pact countries (USSR). The prolonged confrontation between these blocs during the Cold War period caused an arms race of unprecedented scale. The main condition for "victory" in this process was technological superiority, and therefore the possibility of creating new types of weapons of mass destruction.
Among the inventions that embodied all the latest achievements of science and production were: strategic bombers, ballistic intercontinental missiles, different kinds weapons of mass destruction (atomic and hydrogen, infrasonic (acoustic), radio frequency (radiological), genetic, fuel-air mixture weapons, geophysical, chemical, biological and others).
Initially, the military sphere was in the lead in the scientific and technological revolution, but achievements in it made it possible to implement military developments for peaceful purposes. Mastering the energy of the atomic nucleus opened the way to a new source of energy, which made it possible for unlimited industrial growth and required great efforts of the scientific potential. And Soviet intercontinental rockets were modernized to launch the first artificial Earth satellite (October 1957) and the first spacecraft manned by Yu. A. Gagarin (April 1961).
One of the fundamental directions was the development of electronic instruments and devices, which have found wide application and have become indispensable in communication equipment, automation, measuring equipment, electronic computers and other important areas. Radio electronics, widely included in production, science, people's life, is one of the most important areas of technological progress, a powerful tool for increasing labor productivity. The most important invention of radio electronics was electronic computers (computers), whose development led to the computer revolution.
It is computers (computers) that make it possible to store, quickly search and transfer information, which means a revolution in the systems of accumulation and access to mastered knowledge. There comes an important stage in the life of mankind of "paperless informatics": information goes to specialists directly to the workplace on the appropriate display devices (displays) located in convenient and easily accessible places for the consumer. Moreover, the information infrastructure, based on the merger of computers, communication systems (including space) and knowledge bases, is becoming an important factor in the further development of electronic and computer technology and information technology.
Total:
The main features of the initial period of the scientific and technological revolution were:
- involvement of all industries and areas human activity;
- reduction of time between discovery and introduction into production, constant obsolescence and updating;
- increasing the requirements for the level of qualification labor resources;
- improvement of types of weapons and equipment.
- development of higher-level technologies related to the concept of informatics hardware (electronics, computer technology, telecommunications, radar, optoelectronics, laser technology, nuclear power engineering, polymer chemistry);
- significant changes in the social structure of the world society (growth of the urban population, an increase in the share of those employed in the service and trade sectors, a change in the way of life of people, a change in priorities and values).
International social movements
After the Second World War, to a new stage of development
mass social movements arose. Particularly wide
cue scale they received in the 70-80s. Some of them originated outside
framework of political parties, reflecting the crisis of political
parties as an institution of a democratic society.
Leading social movements spoke out in defense of peace,
democracy and social progress, against all manifestations
reaction and neo-fascism. Social movements of modern
they make a great contribution to the protection of the environment,
civil rights and freedoms, fight for the participation of workers
in the management of enterprises and the state. wide
social movements support fair
requirements of women, youth, national minorities.
The leading role in many movements belonged to the workers.
chim. However, in recent decades, the social composition of many
gih social movements has expanded significantly. In some
some of them include representatives of all social strata
contemporary Western societies.
Communists. An important role in the victory over fascism was played by
whether the communists. Heroic struggle on the fronts and behind enemy lines,
active participation in the resistance movement in the enslaved
political parties in the world. Their influence and numbers are
increased. If in 1939 there were 61 communist
party numbering about 4 million, then by the end of 1945 the communi-
political parties existed in 76 countries, which unite
hired 20 million people. In the early postwar years, the number
communists grew even more. In 1950, 81
party, and the number of communists grew to 75 million people.
In 1945-1947, the communists were part of the coalition
the governments of France, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
Iceland, Norway and Finland. Their representatives were
elected to the parliaments of most states of Western Europe
ropy. In the period from 1944 to 1949, the Communist parties became the ruling
countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe and in a number of countries
Asia, later - in Cuba.
During the war years (1943) the Comintern was dissolved. However
the dependence of the communist parties on the CPSU remained. New challenges
demanded the strengthening of international ties of the communist
tov of the planet. In September 1947, a meeting was held in Poland
representatives of the Communist Parties of the USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary,
Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, France and
Italy. Informational reports were heard at the meeting
communication about the activities of the parties represented at the meeting.
The question of the international situation was also discussed. AT
of the adopted Declaration, the Communist Parties were given fundamental
tasks of the struggle for peace, democracy, national sovereignty
Tet, for the rallying of all anti-imperialist forces. For coor-
dynamism of the activities of the communist parties, the exchange of experience was
a decision was made to establish an Information Bureau and establish
publishing house. At meetings held in June
1948 in Romania and in November 1949 in Hungary, were adopted
documents on the defense of peace, the need to strengthen unity
working class and communists.
Serious disagreements between the CPSU and the Communist Party of the South
Slavia, Stalin's pressure on other communist parties led to the
exclusion from the Information Bureau of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. After 1949
The information bureau did not meet. Subsequently, the connection between com-
parties began to be carried out in the form of bilateral and multi-
foreign meetings and international meetings on voluntary
basis.
In 1957 and 1966, international conferences were held in Moscow.
scheniya representatives of the communist parties. Most
actual problems of the communist movement, demo-
ratiy, peace and social progress are reflected in
documents adopted at the meetings. However, in subsequent
years, dangerous tendencies and discrepancies began to appear,
associated with the departure of the leadership of the Communist Party of China from the
sism-leninism and proletarian internationalism.
In the 1960s, there was a significant deterioration in relations
between the CPSU and the Communist Party of China, between the CCP and other
munist parties. The gap between the CPC and the CPSU is hard
affected the unity of the MKD. Some communist parties switched to
Maoist positions, in others Maoist groups emerged. Os-
The third crisis in the MKD arose in connection with the introduction of troops from states
members of the Warsaw Pact to Czechoslovakia. 24 compar-
tia, including Italian and French, condemned the military
intervention. After that, with difficulty, it was possible to convene a meeting
Communist and Workers' Parties in July 1969 Differences
continued to intensify. Five communist parties refused to sign
final document of the Meeting, four parties, including the Italian
Liana and Australian, agreed to sign only one
section, some signed the document with reservations.
In 1977 General Secretaries influential communist parties
Western Europe - Italian (E. Berlinguer), French
(J. Marchais) and Spanish (S. Carrillo) adopted a declaration
against the orientation of the MKD towards the Soviet model of socialism. New
The trend was called "Eurocommunism". "Eurocommunis-
you" stood for the peaceful path of development of countries to socialism.
The USSR was criticized for the lack of democracy and violations
solution of human rights. The countries of "real socialism" are condemned
fought for the subordination of the state to the party. "Eurocommunists"
expressed the opinion that the Soviet Union had lost its revolutionary
luscious role.
The new trend was supported by many communist parties, including
le Great Britain, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Japan. Not-
which parties - Australia, Greece, Spain, Finland,
Sweden - split. As a result, in these countries education
elk for two, and even three communist parties.
In recent decades, the divergence of ideas has increased
political orientation of communist parties with re-
al social development. This led to a crisis of
dov, politicians and organizations of communist parties. More
all he struck were those parties that were in power and
responsible for the development of their countries. Crash "re-
socialism” in the countries of Eastern Europe, leaving the stage
we of the CPSU have made obvious the need for a serious re-
review of traditional views, politics and organizations
communist parties, their development of a new ideological
political orientation corresponding to what is happening in
world of profound change.
Socialists and Social Democrats. Socialist in-
ternational. In 1951 at a congress in Frankfurt am Main
The Socialist International (SI) was founded, which
ry proclaimed himself the successor of the RSI, which had existed since
1923 to 1940 The leading role in the creation of the SI was played by the British
Labor Party, SPD, socialist parties of Belgium,
Italy, France. At first, it included 34 members
socialist and social democratic parties, numbering
about 10 million people.
In the program declaration “Goals and objectives of democratic
socialism” the goal was put forward: gradually, without class
struggle, revolution and dictatorship of the proletariat to achieve
transformation of capitalism into socialism. Peaceful evolution
ion process was opposed to the Marxist-Leninist
doctrine of class struggle. The declaration stated that
The main threat to peace is the policy of the USSR. Creation of SI
and his strategy in the first post-war decades strengthened
confrontation between two branches of the international labor movement
nia - social democratic and communist.
In the late 50s and especially in the 60s - early 70s, social
democracy has significantly expanded popular support for its
politicians. This was facilitated by objective circumstances,
which favored the implementation of the policy of social
foot maneuvering. Importance had an extension
becoming the Socialist International. Joining its socialist ranks
parties in Asia, Africa and Latin America led to
lara- tion “The World Today – a Socialist Perspective”
knew the need for peaceful coexistence of states
with different social systems, contained a call for inter-
international detente and disarmament. Subsequently, SI all ak-
more actively advocated the strengthening of peace and universal security.
In the 70s, the SI continued to adhere to the ideology and
principles of "democratic socialism". More attention
began to be given to the problems of the socio-economic situation
zheniya workers. SI is more active and more constructive
stood up for peace and disarmament, supported the new "Eastern
policy” by W. Brandt, Soviet-American agreements on
issues of arms limitation and reduction, for strengthening
détente, against the Cold War.
In the 1980s, the Social Democrats faced certain
our difficulties. The number of some parties has been reduced. AT
leading Western countries (England, Germany), they were amazed
in the elections and ceded power to the neoconservatives. Difficulties
The 80s were generated by a number of factors. More sharply manifest
There were conflicting consequences of scientific and technological revolution and economic growth.
Economic and other global problems have become aggravated. Not
managed to stop unemployment, and in a number of countries it took
menacing proportions. An active offensive was carried out by the neo-conservative
active forces. On many exciting issues, the SI has developed
new strategy and tactics, which are reflected in
program documents of the social democratic parties and in
Declaration of principles of the Socialist International, adopted in 1989.
Final goal, proclaimed by the social democrats,
consists in achieving social democracy, i.e. in providing
all social rights of workers (the right to work, education
care, recreation, treatment, housing, social security), in
elimination of all forms of oppression, discrimination, exploitation
man by man, in the guarantee of all conditions for free
development of each personality as a condition for free development
the whole society.
The goals of democratic socialism must be achieved,
emphasize the social democratic parties, peaceful, de-
by democratic means, by gradual evolution
society, through reforms, class cooperation. AT
post-war years, the Social Democrats were in power in
a number of countries (Austria, England, Germany, France, Spain, Sweden)
tion, Norway, Finland).
Despite the fact that they often made concessions to the bourgeois
zia and big capital, an objective assessment of activities
testifies that, first of all, they reflected and
protect the interests of workers. Significant contribution to the protection
democracy, formation and development of the state, welfare
yaniya, in improving the material situation of workers, in
promotion of their countries on the path of social progress, in
the creation of universal peace and international security, in improving
the solution of relations between the West and the East, in solving the complex
ny problems of the "third world".
In 1992, the 19th SI Congress took place. It took place in Berlin.
The French socialist Pierre Maurois was elected chairman. AT
in a number of countries, new socialist and social democratic
political parties, including those in the independent states of the CIS.
The parties of the Socialist International are represented by large
factions in the parliaments of many Western countries.
leafy international. The congress was attended by 1200
delegates representing 143 parties from 100 countries. O
the importance of the congress being held is also evidenced by the fact that among the delegates
the President of Argentina and eleven pre-
prime ministers. In a unanimously adopted declaration among
many important provisions reflecting modern problems
we are the world Special attention was given to the need for
give social change to the processes of globalization”, “improve
build representative democracy”, defend “the balance
between rights and obligations.
Despite the fact that in recent decades the leading
Western countries, the "neo-conservative wave" has intensified, the social
democracy has had and is having a significant impact on the political
civil and social life in the Western world. Private pre-
entrepreneurship remains regulated, democracy universal.
The social rights of workers are guaranteed by the state.
Trade unions. In the postwar years, the role
trade unions - the largest organization of employees of hired
leg labor. By the beginning of the 90s, only those united in international
The people's trade union organizations numbered over 315 million.
human. Already in the 1950s and 1960s, millions of members of the WFTU, created
at the 1st World Trade Union Congress in Paris in September
1945, actively advocated the improvement of the material situation
zheniya workers. Much attention was paid to the fight against
Botica, the development of the social insurance system,
the rights of trade unions. Important place in activity
trade unions were occupied with issues related to the struggle of the people
masses for the prohibition of atomic weapons, the cessation of wars and the
regional conflicts, strengthening global security.
The national
but-liberation movement. Development of strategy and tactics
international trade union movement, restoration
unity of trade unions, the struggle for the vital rights of workers,
for peace and national independence of the working people were
sacred World Trade Union Congresses: in Vienna (1953),
in Leipzig (1957), in Moscow (1961), in Warsaw (1965), in
Budapest (1969). They played an important role in raising the
prestige and growing influence of the WFTU in the international trade union
nom movement.
At the World Congress in Budapest (1969) was approved
ren “Orientation document for trade union action”. This
document oriented workers to seek the elimination
economic and political domination of monopolies,
buildings of democratic institutions of power, ensuring ac-
active participation of the working class in the management of the economy. AT
the focus was also on the unity of the international
new trade union movement. In the 1970s and 1980s, the WFTU was
zhnemu gave priority to the problems of reduction
armaments and strengthening peace, ending the race
weapons, supported the peoples of Indochina, Af-
rica, Latin America, which in different years in separate
countries fought to strengthen their independence,
for democratic freedoms. Questions played an important role
unity of action. The WFTU called on other international
trade union centers to joint action in defense of
the interests of the working people, the fight against unemployment, to repulse
monopoly capital. All past during this period
peace congresses and trade union conferences showed all
the variety of forms of struggle of the WFTU in upholding indigenous in-
the interests of the workers.
An important role in the international trade union movement
played by the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
(ICSP). It includes trade unions of industrial and some
developing countries. For better coordination of activities
of the trade unions of the ICFTU has created regional organizations
nization: Asia-Pacific, Inter-American, African
Kanskaya. As part of the ICFTU, in 1973 the European
trade union confederation (ETUC). ICSP has become more energetic
but to come out in support of the socio-economic demands
of working people, for the strengthening of peace and disarmament, against
specific acts of aggression. She welcomed the democratic
sky revolutions in the countries of Eastern Europe, perestroika in
USSR, supported the efforts of the international community to
assistance to them, more actively began to advocate for
reduction of regional military conflicts.
In the postwar years, Western countries intensified their
activities of trade unions under the influence of the church. AT
1968 International Confederation of Christian Trade Unions
(MKHP) changed its name. XII Congress of the ICCP post-
decided to call the organization the World Confederation of Workers
yes (VKT). The CGT protects human rights and trade union freedoms.
Yes, he is fighting for the improvement of the situation of the population in the "third world",
calls for the activation of women in public life; at-
calls for a fight against all forms of exploitation and discrimination
tions. An important place is given global issues from the time of-
ness, especially environmental. CGT supported change
developments in Eastern Europe, welcomes the positive
changes in international relations.
Trade unions, being the most massive organizations
labor movement, contributed to its significant success
boor, social progress in general.
In the early 1990s, the world trade union movement
counted, according to various estimates, 500 - 600 million people, which
accounted for 40 - 50% of the army of hired labor. They don't cover
the entire mass of employees in the developed countries of the West,
including those predominantly employed in traditional industries
material production.
The crisis state of trade unions in modern conditions
due to the inadequacy of their activities, the profound changes
changes that have occurred in the nature of labor and the structure of work
employment in the leading Western countries, under the influence of engineering. Prof.
unions are trying to change their strategy and tactics, in a more
broadly to protect the interests of workers, more
the mania to pay attention to global problems, to strengthen cooperation
ties with other mass democratic movements.
Other mass social movements. In post-war
years, in almost all countries there has been an outflow from traditional political
political parties and trade unions. Disillusioned members of these
organizations sought to gain more freedom, did not want
put up with rigid ideological attitudes. Especially
it was typical for student youth. Appeared
many different groups that, on a voluntary basis,
united in movements not associated with any strict discipline
noah, nor a common ideology.
In the context of crisis phenomena in the socio-economic
and political spheres in the 70s, new movements arose,
covering people of different social strata, different ages
Comrade and political views.
Mass social movements in the 70s - 80s had
or different directions. The most common and
which had a significant impact on the socio-political
life of the Western world were environmental and anti-war
nye movements.
Representatives of the environmental movement in many countries
nah actively oppose super-industrialization, not-
rational exploitation of natural resources. Special attention
mania is given to problems associated with danger
the development of an ecological crisis into an ecological catastrophe
stanza, which can lead to the death of human qi-
vilization. In this regard, the environmental movement
et for a ban on nuclear weapons tests, limiting
and the cessation of military activities, disarmament. Eco-
logical movement considers disarmament and related
with him, the conversion of military production as the most important
potential source of additional resources, material
al and intelligent, to solve environmental pro-
blem. Among mass social movements, environmental
currents are the most organized and developed in
theoretical and practical plans. They created many
some countries have their political parties "green" and international
native organizations (Greenpeace), a single faction in the Euro-
parliament. The Greens movement supports active
cooperation within the framework of the UN, many non-
organizations.
Among the mass movements in Western countries, an important
one hundred takes the anti-war movement. Back in the years of the Second World
howling war, it consolidated on the democratic anti-
fascist basis, which in the post-war period became the base
mass peace movement. At the II World Con-
Congress in Warsaw (1950) the World Peace Council is established
(SCM), which organizes the campaign for the signing of the Stock-
Holm Appeal, which qualified the atomic war as
crime against humanity. In the mid-1950s, in the country
nah West widely developed anti-nuclear pacifism.
In the second half of the 1950s, many Western countries created
there are mass anti-nuclear organizations or their coalitions. AT
In the early 1970s, the anti-war movement gained momentum.
in Vietnam. In the second half of the 70s - early 80s,
supporters of the anti-war movement actively opposed it.
throne bomb, deployment of American and Soviet missiles
medium range in Europe.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the women's movement intensified. In line with the youth
reliable rebellion, a neo-fiminist movement arose,
fallen from the positions of the latest concepts of "mixed", and not
"sexually divided" society, and "social consciousness"
gender”, overcoming “violence against women”. Represented
leaders of the women's movement in Western countries are actively
yut against the monopoly of men on power in society, for equal
representation of women in all spheres of activity and all
social institutions.
Civil activism has increased in recent decades
women. They are increasingly influencing politics
are elected to the parliaments of many countries, hold high
government posts. Women's interest in the global
ny problems of our time. Women actively participate
in the anti-war movement. All this speaks of the emerging
the trend of increasing the role of women in the life of their countries and
rotation of the women's movement into an influential force of modern
noah democracy.
At the turn of the 60s in the USA and other Western countries
a youth protest movement (hippies) emerged. This is a move-
ing arose as a reaction to the specific features of society
temporary bureaucracy and totalitarianism, the desire
put all spheres of an individual's life under bureaucratic
control, the contradiction between the democratic ideo-
logic and totalitarian practice, everything growing is depersonalized
bureaucratic structure. Hippie style and slogans
became quite popular in the 70's and 80's.
years, having had a strong influence on the value world of Western
Yes. Many ideals of the counterculture have become an integral part of
mass consciousness. Generation of hipsters put into circulation
passion for rock music, which has now become an essential element
element of traditional culture.
In a number of Western countries in the 60s - 80s, it was developed
extremism, which is traditionally divided into "left" and "right"
out." Left extremists usually appeal to the ideas of Mark-
sism-leninism and other left-wing views (anarchism, left
radicalism), declaring themselves the most consistent fighters
tsami "for the cause of the proletariat", "the working masses". They criticize
forged capitalism for social inequality, suppression
personality, exploitation. Socialism is for bureaucratization,
oblivion of the principles of the "class struggle" ("The Fraction of the Red
Army" in Germany, "Red Brigades" in Italy). Rights
extremists denounce the vices of bourgeois society with extreme
conservative positions for the decline of morals, drug addiction, ego-
ism, consumerism and "mass culture", the absence of
row", the domination of the plutocracy. For both right and left
extremism is characterized by anti-communism (“Italian social
movement” in Italy, the Republican and National
but-democratic parties in Germany, various right-wing
wild and overtly fascist groups and parties in the US).
Part of the "left" extremist organizations are on the wrong
gallant position, leads guerrilla war, makes ter-
roristic acts.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the Western world developed and
movements such as the New Left and the New Right. Represented
members of the New Left (mainly student youth
dezh and some part of the intelligentsia) differed in different
criticism of all contemporary forms of socio-political
arrangement and organization of economic life from the positions
extreme radicalism (including terrorism) and anarchism. "But-
right” (mainly intelligentsia, technocrats and some
other privileged strata of the developed Western
countries) relied on the ideology of neoconservatism.
Modern mass social movements are
an essential part of the democratic process. A priority-
for them are the ideas of peace, democracy, social
progress, the salvation of human civilization. Public
movements are overwhelmingly supporter-
of non-violent action, believing that humane goals are not
can be achieved by inhumane means.
In the 90s of the XX century in the minds of the broad masses
developed a critical attitude towards modern
globalization processes. Later it developed into a powerful
resistance especially to economic globalization,
benefits from which the most developed countries receive
pada. Occupying a leading position in the global economy and
the latest technologies, they protect their interests, pro-
pursuing a policy of double standards. At the same time, save
economic, social and other costs of globalization are heavy
a heavy burden on the weak economies of developing
countries and the poorest social strata of the population, even in
developed countries.
Under these conditions, a new social movement directed
opposed to the politics of globalization, began to be called "anti-globalization
ballistic." Transnational in scope and character
theru, it includes representatives of various movements
protest, which are united by the rejection of the deepest social
economic inequality of the modern world.
CHAPTER 8. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND CULTURE
The basis for the development of the economy of the advanced countries of the world in the second half of the XX - early XXI century. were achievements in the field of science. Research in the field of physics, chemistry, biology has made it possible to radically change many aspects of industrial and agricultural production, gave impetus to further development transport. Thus, mastering the secret of the atom led to the birth of nuclear energy. A huge leap forward was made by radio electronics. Advances in genetics have made it possible to obtain new plant varieties and improve the efficiency of animal husbandry.
In the 70s. 20th century A new stage of the scientific and technological revolution has begun. Science merges with production, turning into a direct productive force. Another feature of this stage is a sharp reduction in the time between a scientific discovery and its introduction into production. A peculiar symbol of that time is a personal computer, which has become in developed countries since the last decades of the twentieth century. An integral part of both production and private life. The advent of the Internet has made a huge amount of information available to the public. Microprocessors began to be widely used for industrial automation, in household appliances. Huge changes have taken place in the means of communication (faxes, pagers, mobile phones). The brightest achievement of science is space exploration. In 1961, the flight of Yuri Gagarin, which gave impetus to the Soviet-American race in space exploration. Achievements of this race: human spacewalk, docking spacecraft, soft landings of artificial satellites on the Moon, Venus and Mars, the creation of orbital space stations and reusable spacecraft, etc. The Americans announced the flights of their astronauts to the moon. After the collapse of the USSR, the intensity of space research decreased markedly, but they continued. The creation of an international space station; the United States, Russia, EU and Asian countries took part in this project.
Significant progress has been made in biology and medicine, faced with previously unknown diseases (AIDS, Ebola, mad cow disease) and came close to solving the problem of cloning. This method caused discussions in society about the moral and ethical consequences of the results of its application. At the end of the twentieth century. science allows doctors to successfully treat cardiovascular and oncological diseases, transplant vital organs of a person, increase his growth, and eliminate other defects in physical development.
A new step in the study of superconductivity and the design of thermonuclear reactors was made by physicists.
Today, many regions of the planet are covered with transport routes, wide highways and high-speed railways. Traveling across continents and oceans aboard supersonic liners takes only a few hours.
Television towers, long bridges and underwater tunnels, one of which - under the English Channel - connected the British Isles with the European continent in 1995, became true miracles of engineering thought. All these achievements formed the foundation of the information society of the 21st century, the transition to which put Man at the center of socio-philosophical thought, striving to overcome the costs of the "mass consumption society" with its cult of money and things, oblivion of humanistic values and ideals of spirituality.
§ 106. International relations in the second half of the twentieth century.
Berlin and Caribbean crises.
The appearance of the Soviet Union at the turn of the 60s of the twentieth century. intercontinental missiles contributed to the intensification of its foreign policy. The confrontation between the USSR and the USA then swept the whole world. The USSR actively supported the national liberation movements of various peoples and other anti-American forces. The United States continued to actively build up its armed forces, expand its network of military bases everywhere, and provide economic and military assistance to pro-Western forces around the world on a large scale. The desire of the two blocs to expand spheres of influence twice in the late 50s - early 60s of the twentieth century. brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.
The international crisis began in 1958 around West Berlin, after the West rejected the demand of the Soviet leadership to turn it into a free demilitarized city. A new aggravation of events occurred on August 13, 1961. At the initiative of the leadership of the GDR, a wall of concrete slabs was erected around West Berlin. This measure enabled the government of the GDR to prevent the flight of citizens to the FRG and strengthen the position of their state. The construction of the wall caused outrage in the West. NATO and ATS troops were put on alert.
In the spring of 1962, the leaders of the USSR and Cuba decided
place medium-range nuclear missiles on this island. The USSR hoped to make the United States as vulnerable to a nuclear strike as the Soviet Union was after the deployment of American missiles in Turkey. Receiving confirmation of the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba caused a panic in the United States. The confrontation reached its peak on October 27-28, 1962. The world was on the brink of war, but prudence prevailed: the USSR removed nuclear missiles from the island in response to US President D. Kennedy's promises not to invade Cuba and remove missiles from Turkey.
The Berlin and Caribbean crises showed both sides the danger of brinkmanship. In 1963, an extremely important agreement was signed: the USA, the USSR and Great Britain stopped all nuclear tests, except for underground ones.
The second period of the "COLD WAR" began in 1963. It is characterized by the transfer of the center of gravity of international conflicts to areas of the "third world", to the periphery of world politics. At the same time, relations between the US and the USSR were transformed from confrontation to detente, to negotiations and agreements, in particular, on the reduction of nuclear and conventional weapons and on the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The largest conflicts were the US war in Vietnam and the Soviet Union in Afghanistan.
War in Vietnam.
After the war (1946-1954) France was forced to recognize the independence of Vietnam and withdraw its troops
Military-political blocs.
The desire of Western countries and the USSR to strengthen their positions on the world stage led to the creation of a network of military-political blocs in different regions. The largest number of them were created on the initiative and under the leadership of the United States. In 1949, the NATO bloc emerged. In 1951, the ANZUS bloc (Australia, New Zealand, USA) was formed. In 1954, the NATO bloc was formed (USA, Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, Philippines). In 1955, the Baghdad Pact was concluded (Great Britain, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan, Iran), after the withdrawal of Iraq, it was called CENTO.
In 1955, the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD) was formed. It included the USSR, Albania (withdrew in 1968), Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia.
The main obligations of the participants in the blocs consisted in mutual assistance to each other in the event of an attack on one of the allied states. The main military confrontation unfolded between NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs. Practical activity within the blocs was expressed, first of all, in military-technical cooperation, as well as in the creation of military bases by the USA and the USSR and the deployment of their troops on the territory of the allied states on the line of confrontation between the blocs. Particularly significant forces of the parties were concentrated in the FRG and the GDR. A large number of American and Soviet atomic weapons were also placed here.
The Cold War triggered an accelerated arms race, which was the most important area of confrontation and potential conflict between the two great powers and their allies.
Periods"cold war"Andinternational crises.
There are two periods in the Cold War. The period from 1946 to 1963 was characterized by growing tensions between the two great powers, culminating in the Cuban Missile Crisis in the early 1960s. xx c. This is the period of the creation of military-political blocs and conflicts in the zones of contact between the two socio-economic systems. Significant events were the French war in Vietnam (1946-1954), the suppression of the uprising in Hungary in 1956 by the USSR, the Suez crisis of 1956, the Berlin crisis of 1961 and the Caribbean crisis of 1962. The decisive event of the war took place near the town of Dien Bien Phu, where the Vietnamese The People's Army in March 1954 forced the main forces of the French Expeditionary Force to capitulate. In the north of Vietnam, a government headed by the communist Ho Chi Minh (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) was established, and in the south - pro-American forces.
The United States provided assistance to South Vietnam, but its regime was in danger of collapse, since a partisan movement soon unfolded there, supported by the DRV, China and the USSR. In 1964, the United States began bombing North Vietnam, and in 1965 they landed their troops in South Vietnam. Soon these troops were drawn into fierce fighting with the partisans. The United States used the tactics of "scorched earth", carried out massacres of civilians, but the resistance movement expanded. The Americans and their local henchmen suffered more and more losses. American troops were equally unsuccessful in Laos and Cambodia. Protests against the war around the world, including in the United States, along with military failures, forced the United States to enter into peace negotiations. In 1973, American troops were withdrawn from Vietnam. In 1975, the partisans took his capital Saigon. A new state has emerged Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
War in Afghanistan.
In April 1978, a revolution took place in Afghanistan. The new leadership of the country concluded an agreement with the Soviet Union and repeatedly asked him for military assistance. The USSR supplied Afghanistan with weapons and military equipment. The civil war between supporters and opponents of the new regime in Afghanistan flared up more and more. In December 1979, the USSR decided to send a limited contingent of troops to Afghanistan. The presence of Soviet troops in Afghanistan was regarded by the Western powers as aggression, although the USSR acted within the framework of an agreement with the leadership of Afghanistan and sent troops at its request. Later, Soviet troops were drawn into civil war in Afghanistan. This negatively affected the prestige of the USSR on the world stage.
Middle East conflict.
A special place in international relations is occupied by the conflict in the Middle East between the State of Israel and its Arab neighbors.
International Jewish (Zionist) organizations have chosen the territory of Palestine as a center for the Jews of the whole world. In November 1947, the UN decided to create two states on the territory of Palestine: Arab and Jewish. Jerusalem stood out as an independent unit. On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed, and on May 15, the Arab Legion, which was in Jordan, opposed the Israelis. The first Arab-Israeli war began. Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Iraq brought troops into Palestine. The war ended in 1949. Israel occupied more than half of the territory intended for the Arab state and the western part of Jerusalem. Jordan received its eastern part and the western bank of the Jordan River, Egypt got the Gaza Strip. The total number of Arab refugees exceeded 900 thousand people.
Since then, the confrontation between the Jewish and Arab peoples in Palestine has remained one of the most acute problems. Armed conflicts arose repeatedly. Zionists invited Jews from all over the world to Israel, to their historical homeland. To accommodate them, the attack on Arab territories continued. The most extremist groups dreamed of creating a "Greater Israel" from the Nile to the Euphrates. The United States and other Western countries became Israel's ally, the USSR supported the Arabs.
In 1956 announced by the President of Egypt G. Nasser the nationalization of the Suez Canal hit the interests of England and France, who decided to restore their rights. This action was called the triple Anglo-French-Israeli aggression against Egypt. On October 30, 1956, the Israeli army suddenly crossed the Egyptian border. English and French troops landed in the canal zone. The forces were unequal. The invaders were preparing for an attack on Cairo. Only after the threat of the USSR to use atomic weapons in November 1956, hostilities were stopped, and the troops of the interventionists left Egypt.
On June 5, 1967, Israel launched military operations against the Arab states in response to the activities of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Ya. Arafat, created in 1964 with the aim of fighting for the formation of an Arab state in Palestine and the liquidation of Israel. Israeli troops quickly advanced deep into Egypt, Syria, Jordan. All over the world there were protests and demands for an immediate end to the aggression. Hostilities stopped by the evening of 10 June. For 6 days, Israel occupied the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the western bank of the Jordan River and the eastern part of Jerusalem, the Golan Heights in Syrian territory.
In 1973 a new war began. Arab troops acted more successfully, Egypt managed to liberate part of the Sinai Peninsula. In 1970 and 1982 Israeli troops invaded Lebanese territory.
All attempts by the UN and the great powers to achieve an end to the conflict were unsuccessful for a long time. Only in 1979, with the mediation of the United States, was it possible to sign a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. Israel withdrew troops from the Sinai Peninsula, but the Palestinian problem was not solved. Since 1987, in the occupied territories of Palestine began "intifada" Arab uprising. In 1988, the creation of the State was announced
Palestine. An attempt to resolve the conflict was an agreement between the leaders of Israel and the PLO in the mid-1990s. about the creation Palestinian Authority in parts of the occupied territories.
Discharge.
Since the mid 50s. xx c. The USSR came up with initiatives for general and complete disarmament. A major step was the treaty banning nuclear tests in three environments. However, the most important steps to mitigate the international situation were made in the 70s. 20th century Both in the USA and in the USSR, there was a growing understanding that a further arms race was becoming pointless, that military spending could undermine the economy. The improvement in relations between the USSR and the West was called "detente" or "détente".
An essential milestone on the path of détente was the normalization of relations between the USSR and France and the FRG. An important point of the agreement between the USSR and the FRG was the recognition of the western borders of Poland and the border between the GDR and the FRG. During a visit to the USSR in May 1972 by US President R. Nixon, agreements were signed on the limitation of anti-ballistic missile systems (ABM) and the Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Arms (SALT-l). In November 1974, the USSR and the USA agreed to prepare a new agreement on the limitation of strategic arms (SALT-2), which was signed in 1979. The agreements provided for the mutual reduction of ballistic missiles.
In August 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation of the Heads of 33 European countries, the USA and Canada was held in Helsinki. Its outcome was the Final Act of the Conference, which fixed the principles of the inviolability of borders in Europe, respect for the independence and sovereignty, territorial integrity of states, the renunciation of the use of force and the threat of its use.
At the end of the 70s. xx c. reduced tension in Asia. The SEATO and CENTO blocs ceased to exist. However, the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, conflicts in other parts of the world in the early 80s of the twentieth century. again led to an intensification of the arms race and increased tension.
International relationsATendXX early XXIAT.
Perestroika, which began in the USSR in 1985, very soon began to exert an increasingly significant influence on the development of international relations. Aggravation of tension in relations between East and West at the turn of the 70s - 80s. 20th century replaced by their normalization. In the mid 80s. 20th century chapter Soviet Union MS Gorbachev put forward the idea of a new political thinking in international relations. He stated that the main problem is the problem of the survival of mankind, the solution of which should be subordinated to all foreign policy activity. The decisive role was played by meetings and negotiations at the highest level between MS Gorbachev and US Presidents R. Reagan, and then George W. Bush. They led to the signing of bilateral treaties on the elimination of intermediate and shorter range missiles (1987) and on the limitation and reduction of strategic offensive arms (START-l) in 1991.
The completion of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1989 favorably said the Axis on the normalization of international relations.
After the collapse of the USSR, Russia continued the policy of maintaining normal relations with the United States and other leading Western states. A number of important treaties were concluded on further disarmament and cooperation (for example, START-2). The threat of a new war with the use of weapons of mass destruction has sharply decreased. However, by the end of the 90s of the twentieth century. only one superpower remains - the United States, which claims a special role in the world.
Serious changes took place at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s. 20th century In Europe. In 1991, the CMEA and the Department of Internal Affairs were liquidated. In September 1990, representatives of the GDR, the FRG, Great Britain, the USSR, the USA and France signed an agreement to settle the German issue and unify Germany. The USSR withdrew its troops from Germany and agreed to the entry of the united German state into NATO. In 1999, Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic joined NATO. In 2004 Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia joined NATO.
In the early 90s. xx c. changed the political map of Europe.
A united Germany emerged. Yugoslavia broke up into six states, independent Czech Republic and Slovakia appeared. The USSR collapsed.
With the threat of global war reduced, local conflicts in Europe and the post-Soviet space intensified. Armed conflicts broke out between Armenia and Azerbaijan, in Transnistria, Tajikistan, Georgia, the North Caucasus, and Yugoslavia. Especially bloody were the events in the former Yugoslavia. Wars, mass ethnic cleansing, and refugee flows accompanied the formation of independent states in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. NATO actively intervened in the affairs of these states on the side of the anti-Serb forces. In Bosnia. And in Herzegovina, and then in Kosovo (an autonomous province within Serbia), they provided these forces with military and diplomatic support. In 1999, NATO, led by the United States, without UN sanction, committed open aggression against Yugoslavia, starting the bombing of this country. As a result, despite military victories, the Serbs in Bosnia and Kosovo were forced to agree to a settlement on the enemy's terms.
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