equatorial forest savannah environment

South America is mastered by man unevenly. Only the marginal areas of the mainland are densely populated, mainly the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and some areas of the Andes. At the same time, inland areas, such as the wooded Amazonian lowland, remained virtually undeveloped until recently. The question of the origin of the indigenous population of South America - the Indians - has long been a matter of controversy. The most common point of view is that South America was settled by Mongoloids from Asia through North America about 17-19 thousand years ago (Appendix 1). But, based on some anthropological commonality of the Indian peoples of South America with the peoples of Oceania and the presence of the same tools for them, some scientists have expressed the idea of ​​settling South America from the Pacific Islands. However, this view is shared by few. Most scientists are inclined to explain the presence of Oceanian features among the inhabitants of South America by the fact that representatives of the Oceanian race could also penetrate through the northeast of Asia and North America with the Mongoloids. At present, the number of Indians in South America is much larger than in North America, although during the period of colonization of the mainland by Europeans, it has greatly decreased. In some countries, Indians still make up a significant percentage of the population. In Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, they are about half of the total, and in some areas they even significantly predominate. Most of the population of Paraguay is of Indian origin, many Indians live in Colombia. In Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, the Indians were almost completely exterminated in the first period of colonization, and now there are very few of them. Brazil's population is also steadily declining. In the Andes and on the Pacific coast, strong Indian states developed, characterized by a high level of development of agriculture and cattle breeding, crafts, applied arts and the beginnings of scientific knowledge. The agricultural peoples of South America gave such cultivated plants as potatoes, cassava, peanuts, pumpkin. In the process of European colonization and a fierce struggle against the colonialists, some Indian peoples completely disappeared from the face of the Earth, others were pushed back from their ancestral territories to uninhabited and uncomfortable lands. Separate Indian peoples continue to live in areas of their former habitat. Until now, there are tribes living in isolation, retaining the level of development and way of life at which they were caught by the invasion of Europeans. In the interior of Brazil, there are still remnants of the tribes of the language family "zhe". By the time the Europeans arrived on the mainland, they inhabited the eastern and southern parts of Brazil, but were pushed back by the colonialists into forests and swamps. This people is still at the level of development corresponding to the primitive communal system, and is distinguished by a wandering way of life. At a very low stage of development were the inhabitants of the extreme south of South America (Tierra del Fuego) by the arrival of Europeans. They protected themselves from the cold with animal skins, made weapons from bone and stone, and obtained food by hunting gunakos and sea fishing. The fire-earthers were subjected to the most severe physical extermination in the 19th century; now there are very few of them. Before the arrival of Europeans, the main occupation of the tribes living in the Argentine Pampas and Patagonia was hunting. The Spaniards brought horses to the mainland, which later became feral. The Indians learned how to tame horses and began to use them to hunt gunakos. The rapid development of capitalism in Europe was accompanied by the ruthless extermination of the population of the colonial lands. In Argentina, in particular, the Spaniards pushed the local residents to the extreme south of Patagonia, to lands unsuitable for grain farming. At present, the indigenous population is almost completely absent in Pampas. Only small groups of Indians have survived, working as farmhands in large agricultural holdings. The highest socio-economic and cultural development by the arrival of Europeans was achieved by the tribes that inhabited the elevated plateaus of the Andes within Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, where one of the oldest centers of irrigated agriculture is located. The most numerous modern Indian people - Quechua - inhabits the mountainous regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina. On the shores of Lake Titicaca live the Aymara, one of the highest mountain peoples in the world. A significant part of the population, especially in the Atlantic regions (in Brazil, Guiana, Suriname, Guyana), are Negroes - the descendants of slaves imported into South America at the beginning of colonization, when a large and cheap labor force was needed, used on plantations. The Negroes partly mixed into the white and Indian population. As a result, created mixed types: in the first case - mulattoes, in the second - sambo. Fleeing from exploitation, Negroes - slaves fled from their masters to the rainforests. Their descendants, some of whom mixed with the Indians, in some areas still lead a primitive forest lifestyle. Until the independence of the South American republics, that is, until the first half of the 19th century, immigration to South America from other countries was prohibited. But later, the governments of the newly formed republics, interested in the economic development of their states, the development of vacant lands, opened access to immigrants from different countries Europe and Asia. Especially many citizens arrived from Italy, Germany, the Balkan countries, partly from Russia, China and Japan. Settlers of a later period usually keep apart, preserving their language, customs, culture and religion. In some republics (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay) they form significant population groups.

Human impact on the South American environment

Features of the history of South America and, as a consequence, the great unevenness in the distribution of the modern population and its relatively low average density have led to a significant preservation of natural conditions compared to other continents. Large expanses of the Amazonian lowland, the central part of the Guiana Highlands (the Roraima massif), the southwestern part of the Andes and the Pacific coast remained undeveloped for a long time. Separate wandering tribes in the Amazonian forests, with almost no contact with the rest of the population, did not so much influence nature as they themselves depended on it. However, there are fewer and fewer such areas. Mining, laying communications, in particular the construction of the Trans-Amazonian highway, the development of new lands leave everything in South America less spaces unaffected by human activity. The extraction of oil in the very thick of the Amazonian rainforests or iron and other ores within the Guiana and Brazilian highlands required the construction of transport routes in recently still remote and inaccessible areas. This, in turn, led to population growth, the destruction of forests, and the expansion of arable and pasture land. As a result, with the use of the latest technology, the ecological balance is often disturbed, easily vulnerable natural complexes are destroyed (Appendix 2). Development and significant transformations began primarily from the La Plata plain, the coastal parts of the Brazilian Highlands, the extreme north of the mainland. The areas developed even before the start of European colonization are located in the depths of the Andes of Bolivia, Peru and other countries. On the territory of the most ancient Indian civilizations, centuries-old human activity has left its mark on the desert plateaus and mountain slopes at an altitude of 3-4.5 thousand meters above sea level. Now the population of South America is almost 320 million people, and 78% are urban. The growth of large cities is causing serious environmental problems that are characteristic of urban areas around the world. This is a lack and low quality of drinking water, pollution atmospheric air, accumulation of solid waste, etc.

Geographical zones and natural zones of South America

3.2 Human impact on the South American environment

Features of the history of South America and, as a consequence, the great unevenness in the distribution of the modern population and its relatively low average density have led to a significant preservation of natural conditions compared to other continents. Large expanses of the Amazonian lowland, the central part of the Guiana Highlands (the Roraima massif), the southwestern part of the Andes and the Pacific coast remained undeveloped for a long time. Separate wandering tribes in the Amazonian forests, with almost no contact with the rest of the population, did not so much influence nature as they themselves depended on it. However, there are fewer and fewer such areas. The extraction of minerals, the laying of communications, in particular the construction of the Trans-Amazonian highway, the development of new lands leave less and less space in South America that is not affected by human activity. The extraction of oil in the very thick of the Amazonian rainforests or iron and other ores within the Guiana and Brazilian highlands required the construction of transport routes in recently still remote and inaccessible areas. This, in turn, led to population growth, the destruction of forests, and the expansion of arable and pasture land. As a result, with the use of the latest technology, the ecological balance is often disturbed, and vulnerable natural complexes are destroyed (Appendix 2). Development and significant transformations began primarily from the La Plata plain, the coastal parts of the Brazilian Highlands, the extreme north of the mainland. The areas developed even before the start of European colonization are located in the depths of the Andes of Bolivia, Peru and other countries. On the territory of the most ancient Indian civilizations, centuries-old human activity has left its mark on the desert plateaus and mountain slopes at an altitude of 3-4.5 thousand meters above sea level. Now the population of South America is almost 320 million people, and 78% are urban. The growth of large cities is causing serious environmental problems that are characteristic of urban areas around the world. These are the lack and low quality of drinking water, air pollution, accumulation of solid waste, etc.

Great geographical discoveries

Castile, a neighbor of Portugal on the Iberian Peninsula, in 1402 laid claim to the Canary Islands, located off the western coast of Africa ...

Geographical zones and natural areas South America

equatorial forest savanna environment South America is developed by man unevenly. Only the marginal areas of the mainland are densely populated, mainly the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and some areas of the Andes. At the same time, the hinterland...

Thunderstorm activity in Zakamye

Thunderstorm activity in the Kama region

A thunderstorm belongs to those natural phenomena that the most unobservant person notices. Its dangerous effects are widely known. Less is known about its beneficial effects, although they play a significant role ...

Influence study economic activity on the state of the soil cover of the Kostanay region

Using Bioclimatic Characteristics to Estimate Weather

Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a given area. The weather at any given time is characterized by certain combinations of temperature, pressure, humidity, wind direction and speed...

Colors of the city of Naberezhnye Chelny

Permafrost conditions of the coastal lowlands of Yakutia

Permafrost, while often causing problems, can be useful when handled skillfully. For the construction of roads and buildings, both thawing and buckling of soils are dangerous. Surface failures also occur on arable land ...

Population and countries of Africa

South Africa occupies a narrow part of the mainland, lying south of the watershed of the Congo (Zaire) - Zambezi. Plateau South Africa in the central part it decreases, and the Kalahari semi-desert lies in the basin. To the edges of the plateau gradually rises ...

Peculiarities geographical location Russia

Climate from the Greek - means the tilt of the Sun, in other words, the midday height of the sun. Ancient geographers divided the Earth into climatic zones depending on this phenomenon and the length of the day, taking into account the so-called astronomical climates ...

Physical and geographical characteristics and environmental problems of the Myadel region

Economic and geographical characteristics of Greenland

Economical geography

Natural resources used by man can be divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible. Minerals are exhaustible resources, plants, animals and soils are renewable resources.

§one. Classification of anthropogenic impacts

Anthropogenic impacts include all environmentally depressing impacts created by technology or directly by man. They can be combined into the following groups:

1) pollution, i.e. the introduction of physical, chemical and other elements uncharacteristic for it into the environment or an artificial increase in the existing natural level of these elements;

2) technical transformations and destruction of natural systems and landscapes in the process of mining natural resources, construction, etc.;

3) withdrawal of natural resources - water, air, minerals, fossil fuels, etc.;

4) global climate impacts;

5) violation of the aesthetic value of landscapes, i.e. change in natural forms, unfavorable for visual perception.

One of the most significant negative impacts on nature are pollution, which are subdivided according to type, source, consequences, control measures, etc. Sources of anthropogenic pollution are industrial and agricultural enterprises, energy facilities, and transport. A significant share in the overall balance is made by household pollution.

Anthropogenic pollution can be local, regional and global. They are divided into the following types:

biological,

mechanical,

chemical,

physical,

physical and chemical.

biological, as well as microbiological pollution occurs when released into the environment biological waste or as a result of the rapid multiplication of microorganisms on anthropogenic substrates.

Mechanical pollution is associated with substances that do not exert physical and chemical action. It is typical for the processes of production of building materials, construction, repair and reconstruction of buildings and structures: it is waste from stone sawing, production of reinforced concrete, bricks, etc. The cement industry, for example, ranks first in terms of air emissions of solid pollutants (dust), followed by enterprises for the production of silicate brick, lime plants and porous aggregate plants.

Chemical pollution can be caused by the introduction of some new chemical compounds into the environment or by an increase in the concentrations of substances already present. Many of chemical substances are active and can interact with the molecules of substances inside living organisms or actively oxidize in the air, while becoming toxic to them. The following groups of chemical contaminants are distinguished:

1) aqueous solutions and sludges with acidic, alkaline and neutral reactions;

2) non-aqueous solutions and sludges (organic solvents, resins, oils, fats);

3) solid pollution (reactive dust);

4) gaseous pollution (vapours, exhaust gases);

5) specific - especially toxic (asbestos, compounds of mercury, arsenic, lead, phenol-containing pollution).

According to the results of international studies, which were carried out under the auspices of the UN, a list of the most important substances polluting the environment was compiled. It included:

§ sulfur trioxide (sulfuric anhydride) SO 3;

§ suspended particles;

§ carbon oxides CO and CO 2

§ nitrogen oxides NOx;

§ photochemical oxidizers (ozone О 3 , hydrogen peroxide Н 2 О 2 , OH - hydroxyl radicals, PAN peroxyacyl nitrates and aldehydes);

§ mercury Hg;

§ lead Pb;

§ cadmium Cd;

§ chlorinated organic compounds;

§ toxins of fungal origin;

§ nitrates, more often in the form of NaNO 3;

§ ammonia NH 3;

§ individual microbial contaminants;

§ radioactive contamination.

According to the ability to remain under external influence chemical pollution are divided into:

a) persistent and

b) degradable by chemical or biological processes.

To physical contaminants include:

1) thermal, arising from an increase in temperature due to heat losses in industry, residential buildings, in heating mains, etc.;

2) noise as a result of increased noise from enterprises, transport, etc.;

3) light, arising as a result of unreasonably high illumination created by artificial light sources;

4) electromagnetic from radio, television, industrial installations, power lines;

5) radioactive.

Pollution from various sources enters the atmosphere, water bodies, lithosphere, after which they begin to migrate in different directions. From the habitats of a separate biotic community, they are transmitted to all components of the biocenosis - plants, microorganisms, animals. Directions and forms of pollution migration can be as follows (Table 2):

table 2

Forms of pollution migration between natural environments

The construction industry is a powerful tool destruction of natural systems and landscapes. The construction of industrial and civil facilities leads to the rejection of large areas of fertile land, a reduction in the living space of all inhabitants of ecosystems, and a serious change in the geological environment. Table 3 illustrates the results of the impact of construction on the geological structure of the territories.

Table 3

Changes in the geological situation at construction sites

Violations of the natural environment are accompanied by the extraction and processing of minerals. This is expressed as follows.

1. The creation of large quarries and embankments leads to the formation of a technogenic landscape, reduction of land resources, deformation of the earth's surface, depletion and destruction of soils.

2. Drainage of deposits, water intake for the technical needs of mining enterprises, discharge of mine and Wastewater violate the hydrological regime of the water basin, deplete the reserves of underground and surface waters, and worsen their quality.

3. Drilling, blasting, loading of the rock mass is accompanied by a deterioration in the quality of atmospheric air.

4. The above processes, as well as industrial noise, contribute to the deterioration of living conditions and the reduction in the number and species composition of plants and animals, and the reduction in crop yields.

5. Mining, dewatering of deposits, extraction of minerals, disposal of solid and liquid wastes lead to a change in the natural stress-strain state of the massif rocks, flooding and flooding of deposits, pollution of the subsoil.

Now disturbed territories appear and develop in almost every city; territories with a threshold (supercritical) change in any characteristic of engineering-geological conditions. Any such change limits a particular functional use territory and requires reclamation, i.e. a set of works aimed at restoring the biological and economic value of disturbed lands.

One of the main reasons depletion of natural resources is the extravagance of the people. Thus, according to some experts, explored mineral reserves will be completely depleted in 60-70 years. Known oil and gas fields may be exhausted even faster.

At the same time, only 1/3 of the consumed raw materials are directly spent on the production of industrial products, and 2/3 is lost in the form of by-products and waste polluting the environment (Fig. 9).

In the entire history of human society, about 20 billion tons of ferrous metals have been smelted, and in structures, machines, transport, etc. they sold only 6 billion tons. The rest is dispersed in the environment. Currently, more than 25% of the annual production of iron is dissipated, and even more of some other substances. For example, dispersion of mercury and lead reaches 80 - 90% of their annual production.

NATURAL DEPOSITS

Retrieved Leftovers

Transportation Additional production Losses

Losses

Recycling Partial refund

Partial return

Products

Failure, wear, corrosion

Scrap Pollution environment

Fig.9. Resource cycle diagram

The balance of oxygen on the planet is on the verge of disruption: at the current rate of deforestation, photosynthetic plants will soon be unable to replenish its costs for the needs of industry, transport, energy, etc.

Global climate change caused by human activities are characterized primarily by global temperature rise. Experts believe that in the next decade, the heating of the earth's atmosphere may increase to a dangerous level: in the tropics, the temperature is predicted to rise by 1-2 0 C, and near the poles by 6-8 0 C.

Due to the melting of the polar ice, the level of the World Ocean will rise markedly, which will lead to the flooding of vast populated areas and agricultural areas. Associated mass epidemics are predicted, especially in South America, India, and the Mediterranean countries. The number of oncological diseases will increase everywhere. The power of tropical cyclones, hurricanes, and tornadoes will increase significantly.

The root cause of all this is Greenhouse effect, due to an increase in the concentration in the stratosphere at an altitude of 15-50 km of gases that are usually not present there: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, chlorofluorocarbons. The layer of these gases plays the role of an optical filter, passing the sun's rays and delaying reflections from the earth's surface. thermal radiation. This causes an increase in temperature in the surface space, like under the roof of a greenhouse. And the intensity of this process is growing: over the past 30 years alone, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air has increased by 8%, and in the period from 2030 to 2070, its content in the atmosphere is expected to double compared to pre-industrial levels.

Thus, the global increase in temperature in the coming decades and the adverse events associated with it are beyond doubt. At the current level of development of civilization, it is only possible to slow down this process in one way or another. Thus, every possible saving of fuel and energy resources directly contributes to slowing down the rate of atmospheric heating. Further steps in this direction are the transition to resource-saving technologies and devices, to new construction projects.

Significant warming has already been delayed by 20 years, by some estimates, due to the almost complete cessation of the production and use of chlorofluorocarbons in industrialized countries.

At the same time, there are a number of natural factors hindering climate warming on Earth, for example, stratospheric aerosol layer, formed by volcanic eruptions. It is located at an altitude of 20-25 km and consists mainly of sulfuric acid droplets with an average size of 0.3 microns. It also contains particles of salts, metals, and other substances.

The particles of the aerosol layer reflect solar radiation back into space, which leads to some decrease in temperature in the surface layer. Despite the fact that particles in the stratosphere are about 100 times smaller than in the lower layer of the atmosphere - the troposphere - they have a more noticeable climatic effect. This is due to the fact that stratospheric aerosol mainly lowers the air temperature, while tropospheric aerosol can both lower and increase it. In addition, each particle in the stratosphere exists for a long time - up to 2 years, while the lifetime of tropospheric particles does not exceed 10 days: they are quickly washed out by rains and fall to the ground.

Violation of the aesthetic value of landscapes It is typical for construction processes: the construction of buildings and structures that are not large-scale natural formations makes a negative impression, worsens the historically established view of landscapes.

All technogenic impacts lead to a deterioration in the quality indicators of the environment, which are characterized by conservatism, since they were developed over millions of years of evolution.

To assess activity anthropogenic impact on the nature of the Kirov region for each area, an integral anthropogenic load was established, obtained on the basis of assessments of the impact on the environment of three types of pollution sources:

§ local (household and industrial waste);

§ territorial (agriculture and forest exploitation);

§ local-territorial (transport).

It has been established that the areas with the highest environmental stress include: the city of Kirov, the district and the city of Kirovo-Chepetsk, the district and the city of Vyatskiye Polyany, the district and the city of Kotelnich, the district and the city of Slobodskoy.

An environmental problem is a deterioration associated with negative impact natural character and the human factor plays an important role. The destruction of the ozone layer, environmental pollution or its destruction - all this, one way or another, entails adverse consequences now or in the near future.

North America, which is quite significant, but is extremely acute, is one of the most progressive regions of the world. For the sake of prosperity, the United States and Canada have to sacrifice their nature. So what are the difficulties in ensuring environmental security facing the inhabitants of the North American continent, and what do they threaten in the future?

Technological progress

First of all, it should be noted that over time, the living conditions of the population of cities are deteriorating, especially in industrial centers. The reason for this is the active exploitation of natural resources - soil, surface water, and the environment, the destruction of vegetation. However, the most important links of the natural environment - soil, hydrosphere and atmosphere - are interconnected, and human impact on each of them affects the others, so destructive processes become global.

While North America is developing, the environmental problems of the continent are becoming more acute. Even with progress, the destruction and displacement of the natural landscape occurs, followed by its replacement with an artificial environment, which can be harmful and even unsuitable for human life. Already in the second half of the 20th century, the mass of waste on the North American continent amounted to 5-6 billion tons per year, of which at least 20% were chemically active.

Traffic fumes

The problem of exhaust gases is relevant throughout the world today, but on the West Coast of the United States in California, the situation is especially difficult. In these places, along the mainland, as a result, steam condenses over coastal waters, in which large volumes of vehicle exhaust gases are concentrated. In addition, during the summer half of the year there is anticyclone weather, which contributes to an increase in the influx of solar radiation, as a result of which complex chemical transformations occur in the atmosphere. The consequence of this is a dense fog, in which a mass of toxic substances is concentrated.

Experts studying the environmental problems of the North American continent call the excessive emission of exhaust gases a serious challenge to society, because they not only adversely affect nature, but are also the cause of many human diseases.

Depletion of water resources

What other environmental problems exist in North America? On the mainland today things are very bad with water resources- they are simply depleted. On the continent, the level of water consumption is constantly growing, and today it already exceeds the permissible. Back in the last century, the American specialist A. Walman published the results of studies, according to which more than half of the population of the United States consumes water that has been used at least once and passed through the sewer.

Under such circumstances, it is difficult to fulfill two very important conditions: along with the restoration of water quality, it is necessary to constantly ensure the presence of its natural volume in rivers and other reservoirs. In 2015, water levels in the country's largest reservoir plummeted, with scientists warning that this could be the start of a longer drought.

Water pollution

Environmental problems are not limited to depletion alone The list of negative factors in this area is quite long, but mostly it is pollution of water bodies. They throw out waste, which contains everything, and shipping also causes significant damage.

Also today, quite a lot of harm is caused. Approximately one third of the water withdrawn annually from rivers falls on nuclear and thermal power plants, in which it is heated and returned to the reservoir. The temperature of such water is 10-12% higher, and the oxygen content is noticeably lower, which plays a significant role and often causes the death of many living organisms.

Already in the second half of the 20th century, 10-17 million fish perished in the United States every year from pollution of water bodies, and the Mississippi, which is the largest river North America, today one of the ten most polluted in the world.

Rest of nature

North America, located in almost all latitudes of the hemisphere, has a unique landscape and a very rich flora and fauna. Environmental problems have reached the virgin nature of the mainland. On its territory there are several dozens of national parks, which in today's conditions have become almost the only corners in which many millions of city residents can take a break from the noise and dirt of megacities. The influx of visitors and tourists, increasing at an incredible speed, is affecting them, which is why today some unique species animals and plants are on the verge of extinction.

It is a sad fact that not only people are a source of pollution - they are washed out by rainwater and blown out by the wind, and then various toxic substances contained in rock dumps move into the rivers. Such dumps can often stretch along the riverbed for long distances, constantly polluting the reservoir.

Even in the north of Canada, where natural resources are not being developed as intensively, today one can notice significant changes in nature. Ecological problems of the taiga in North America are being studied by employees of Wood Buffalo, one of the largest national parks in the world.

Exploitation of natural resources

As already mentioned, the environmental problems of the continent by and large associated with the high technological level of development of the United States and Canada. The natural resources of North America are diverse and numerous: the bowels of the mainland are rich in oil, natural gas, and the most important minerals. Huge stocks of timber in the north and favorable for Agriculture the lands of the south have been overused for many years, as a result of many environmental problems.

Shale gas

AT recent times a big buzz has arisen around shale gas - it is increasingly being produced by North America. The environmental issues that may arise with the use of certain technologies appear to be of little concern to companies involved in the exploration and production of hydrocarbons from shale formations. Unfortunately, political intrigues play a role in promoting this type of extraction of energy resources, and possible consequences for ecology are sometimes not taken into account at all. Thus, the US government has set a course to acquire independence from energy supplies from foreign markets, and if yesterday the country purchased gas from neighboring Canada, today it is already positioning itself as a hydrocarbon exporting state. And all this is done at the expense of the environment.

Conclusions for the future

In this short article, the environmental problems of North America were briefly considered. Of course, we did not consider all the information, but, based on the available material, we can conclude that in the pursuit of profit and in the pursuit of material wealth, people have methodically caused and continue to cause serious damage to the environment, while rarely thinking about the consequences of their actions.

Trying to achieve the maximum effect in the exploitation of natural resources, we paid little attention to preventive measures, and now we have what we have. A good example of this is the North American continent, perhaps the most highly developed region of the world, whose environmental problems are also very significant.

MAN: SETTLEMENT AND IMPACT ON THE NATURE OF SOUTH AMERICA

South America mastered by man uneven. Only the marginal areas of the mainland are densely populated, mainly the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and some areas of the Andes. At the same time, inland areas, such as the wooded Amazonian lowland, remained virtually undeveloped until recently.

The question of the origin of the indigenous population of South America - the Indians - has long been a matter of controversy.

The most common point of view about the settlement of South America by Mongoloids from Asia across North America approximately 17-19 thousand years ago (Fig. 23).

Rice. 23. Centers of human development and ways of its settlement in globe (according to V.P. Alekseev): 1 - the ancestral home of mankind and resettlement from it; 2 - primary western focus of race formation and settlement of proto-Australoids; 3 - settlement of proto-Caucasians; 4 - resettlement of proto-Negroids; 5 - primary eastern focus of race formation and settlement of proto-Americanoids; 6 - North American tertiary focus and settlement from it; 7 - Central South American focus and resettlement from it.

But, based on some anthropological commonality of the Indian peoples of South America with the peoples of Oceania (broad nose, wavy hair) and the presence of the same tools, some scientists expressed the idea of ​​settling South America from the Pacific Islands. However, this view is shared by few. Most scientists are inclined to explain the presence of Oceanian features among the inhabitants of South America by the fact that representatives of the Oceanian race could also penetrate through the northeast of Asia and North America with the Mongoloids.

Currently number of Indians in South America it is much larger than in North America, although during the period of colonization of the mainland by Europeans, it has greatly decreased. In some countries, Indians still make up a significant percentage of the population. In Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, they are about half of the total, and in some areas they even significantly predominate. Most of the population of Paraguay is of Indian origin, many Indians live in Colombia. In Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, the Indians were almost completely exterminated during the first period of colonization, and now there are very few of them. The Indian population of Brazil is also steadily declining.

Anthropologically, all the Indians of South America are united and close to the North American Indians. The most developed classification of Indian peoples on linguistic grounds. The diversity of the languages ​​of the Indians of South America is very great, and many of them are so peculiar that they cannot be grouped into families or groups. In addition, separate language families and separate languages, formerly widespread on the mainland, have now almost or completely disappeared along with the peoples who spoke them, as a result of European colonization. The languages ​​of many Indian tribes and peoples living in isolation are still almost unexplored. By the beginning of European colonization, the territory east of the Andes was inhabited by peoples whose level of development corresponded to the primitive communal system. They earned their livelihood by hunting, fishing and gathering. But, according to recent studies, on some plains of the north and northeast of the mainland, a large population was engaged in farming on drained lands.

In the Andes and on the Pacific coast developed strong Indian states characterized by a high level of development of agriculture and cattle breeding, crafts, applied arts and the beginnings of scientific knowledge.

The agricultural peoples of South America gave the world such cultivated plants as potatoes, cassava, peanuts, pumpkins, etc. (see the map "Centers of Origin of Cultivated Plants" in Fig. 19).

In the process of European colonization and a fierce struggle against the colonialists, some Indian peoples completely disappeared from the face of the Earth, others were pushed back from their ancestral territories to uninhabited and uncomfortable lands. Separate Indian peoples continue to live in areas of their former habitat. Until now, there are tribes living in isolation, retaining the level of development and way of life at which they were caught by the invasion of Europeans.

Listed below are only some of the most numerous and most well-studied groups of Indian peoples who now or in the past constituted a significant part of the population of the mainland.

In the hinterland of Brazil there are still remnants tribes of the language family "zhe". By the time the Europeans arrived on the mainland, they inhabited the eastern and southern parts of Brazil, but were pushed back by the colonialists into forests and swamps. This people is still at the level of development corresponding to the primitive communal system, and is distinguished by a wandering way of life.

At a very low stage of development were by the arrival of Europeans inhabitants of the extreme south of South America(of Tierra del Fuego). They protected themselves from the cold with animal skins, weapons were made of bone and stone, food was obtained by hunting guanacos and sea fishing. The fire-earthers were subjected to the most severe physical extermination in the 19th century, and now there are very few of them left.

For more high level development were tribes inhabiting the central and northern parts of the mainland in the Orinoco and Amazon basins ( peoples of the Tupi-Guarani, Arawakan, Caribbean language families). They are still engaged in agriculture, cultivating cassava, corn, and cotton. They hunt using bows and arrow-throwing tubes, and also use the instantly acting plant poison curare.

Before the arrival of Europeans, the main occupation of the tribes living in the territory Argentine Pampas and Patagonia, there was a hunt. The Spaniards brought horses to the mainland, which later became feral. The Indians learned how to tame horses and began to use them to hunt guanacos. The rapid development of capitalism in Europe was accompanied by the ruthless extermination of the population of the colonial lands. In Argentina, in particular, the Spaniards pushed the local residents to the extreme south of Patagonia, to lands unsuitable for grain farming. At present, the indigenous population is almost completely absent in Pampas. Only small groups of Indians have survived, working as farmhands in large agricultural holdings.

The highest socio-economic and cultural development by the arrival of Europeans was achieved by the tribes inhabiting the elevated Andean plateau within Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, where one of the oldest centers of irrigated agriculture is located.

indian tribe, language family Quechua who lived in the XI-XIII centuries. on the territory of modern Peru, united the scattered small peoples of the Andes and formed a strong state, Tahuantinsuyu (XV century). The leaders were called "Inca". Hence the name of the whole people. The Incas subjugated the peoples of the Andes up to the modern territory of Chile, extended their influence also to more southern regions, where an independent, but close to the Incas, culture of settled farmers arose Araucanians (Mapuche).

Irrigated agriculture was the main occupation of the Incas, and they cultivated up to 40 species cultivated plants, placing the fields in terraces along the slopes of the mountains and bringing water from mountain streams to them. The Incas tamed wild llamas, using them as pack animals, and bred domestic llamas, from which they received milk, meat, and wool. The Incas were also famous for their ability to build mountain roads and bridges from vines. They knew many crafts: pottery, weaving, processing of gold and copper, etc. They made jewelry and objects of religious worship from gold. In the state of the Incas, private landownership was combined with collective ownership, and a supreme leader with unlimited power was at the head of the state. Taxes were collected from the conquered tribes of the Incas. The Incas are the creators of one of the oldest civilizations in South America. Some monuments of their culture have survived to this day: ancient tracts, remains of architectural structures and irrigation systems.

Individual peoples that were part of the state of the Incas still inhabit the desert high plateaus of the Andes. They cultivate the land in a primitive way, cultivating potatoes, quinoa and some other plants.

The largest modern Indian people - Quechua- inhabits the mountainous regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina. Live on the shores of Lake Titicaca Aymara- one of the most mountainous peoples of the world.

The basis of the indigenous population of Chile was a group of strong agricultural tribes united under the common name araucans. They resisted the Spaniards for a long time, and only in the 18th century. part of them, under the onslaught of the colonialists, moved to Pampa. Now Araucans (Mapuche) live in the southern half of Chile, only a few of them live in the Argentine Pampa.

In the north of the Andes, on the territory of modern Colombia, by the arrival of the Spanish conquerors, a cultural state of peoples had developed chibcha muisca. Now small tribes - the descendants of the Chibcha, who have preserved remnants of the tribal system, live in Colombia and on the Isthmus of Panama.

The first settlers from Europe, who came to America without families, intermarried with Indian women. As a result, a mixed, mixed, population. The process of miscegenation continued later.

At present, "pure" representatives of the Caucasian race are almost completely absent on the mainland. The only exceptions are the latest immigrants. Most of the so-called "whites" contain, to one degree or another, an admixture of Indian (or Negro) blood. This mixed population (mestizo, cholo) predominates in almost all South American countries.

A significant part of the population, especially in the Atlantic regions (in Brazil, Guiana, Suriname, Guyana), are black people- the descendants of slaves imported into South America at the beginning of colonization, when a large and cheap labor force was needed, used on plantations. Negroes partially mixed with the white and Indian population. As a result, mixed types were created: in the first case - mulattoes, in the second - sambo.

Fleeing from exploitation, Negro slaves fled from their masters to the rainforests. Their descendants, some of whom mixed with the Indians, in some areas still lead a primitive forest lifestyle.

Before the declaration of independence of the South American republics, i.e. until the first half of the 19th century, immigration to South America from other countries was prohibited. But later, the governments of the newly formed republics, interested in the economic development of their states, the development of vacant lands, opened access immigrants from different countries of Europe and Asia. Especially many citizens arrived from Italy, Germany, the Balkan countries, partly from Russia, China and Japan. Settlers of a later period usually keep apart, preserving their language, customs, culture and religion. In some republics (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay), they form significant population groups.

Features of the history of South America and, as a consequence, the great unevenness in the distribution of the modern population and its relatively low average density have led to a significant preservation of natural conditions compared to other continents. Large expanses of the Amazonian lowland, the central part of the Guiana Highlands (the Roraima massif), the southwestern part of the Andes and the Pacific coast remained for a long time untapped. Separate wandering tribes in the Amazonian forests, almost not in contact with the rest of the population, not so much influenced nature as they themselves depended on it. However, there are fewer and fewer such areas. Mining, laying of communication lines, in particular construction Transamazonian Highway, the development of new lands leaves in South America less and less space unaffected by human activity.

The extraction of oil in the very thick of the Amazonian rainforests or of iron and other ores within the Guiana and Brazilian highlands required the construction of transport routes in recently still remote and inaccessible areas. This, in turn, led to population growth, the destruction of forests, and the expansion of arable and pasture land. As a result of the attack on nature with the use of the latest technology, the ecological balance is often disturbed, easily vulnerable natural complexes are destroyed (Fig. 87).

Rice. 87. Environmental problems of South America

Development and significant transformations began primarily from the La Plata plain, the coastal parts of the Brazilian Highlands, the extreme north of the mainland. Areas developed even before the start of European colonization are located in the depths of the Andes of Bolivia, Peru and other countries. On the territory of the most ancient Indian civilizations, centuries-old human activity has left its mark on the desert plateaus and mountain slopes at an altitude of 3-4.5 thousand meters above sea level.