ions ions

(from the Greek iōn - going), charged particles formed from an atom (molecule) as a result of the loss or addition of one or more electrons. In solutions, positively charged ions are called cations, and negatively charged ions are called anions. The term was proposed by M. Faraday in 1834.

IONS (from the Greek ion - going), electrically charged particles formed as a result of the loss or addition of one or more electrons (cm. ELECTRON (particle))(or other charged particles) to an atom, molecule, radical, or other ion. Positively charged ions are called cations. (cm. CATION), negatively charged ions - anions (cm. ANION). The term was proposed by M. Faraday (cm. FARADEUS Michael) in 1834
Ions are denoted by a chemical symbol with an index located at the top right. The index indicates the sign and magnitude of the charge, i.e., the multiplicity of the ion, in units of the electron charge. When an atom loses or gains 1, 2, 3 ... electrons, one-, two- and three-charged ions are formed, respectively (see Ionization (cm. IONIZATION)), for example Na + , Ca 2+ , Al 3+ , Cl - , SO 4 2- .
Atomic ions are also denoted by the chemical symbol of the element with Roman numerals indicating the multiplicity of the ion, in this case the Roman numerals are spectroscopic symbols and their value is greater than the charge per unit, i.e. NI means a neutral atom N, the ion designation NII means a singly charged ion N + , NIII means N 2+ .
A sequence of ions of different chemical elements containing the same number of electrons forms an isoelectronic series.
Ions can be part of the molecules of substances, forming molecules due to ionic bonding (cm. IONIC BOND). In the form of independent particles, in an unbound state, ions are found in all aggregate states of matter - in gases (in particular, in the atmosphere), in liquids (in melts and in solutions), in crystals. In liquids, depending on the nature of the solvent and solute, ions can exist indefinitely, for example, the Na + ion in an aqueous solution of common salt NaCl. Salts in the solid state usually form ionic crystals (cm. IONIC CRYSTALS). The crystal lattice of metals consists of positively charged ions, inside of which there is an "electron gas". The interaction energy of atomic ions can be calculated using various approximate methods that take into account the interatomic interaction (cm. INTERATOMIC INTERACTION).
The formation of ions occurs in the process of ionization. To remove an electron from a neutral atom or molecule, it is necessary to expend a certain energy, which is called the ionization energy. The ionization energy per charge of an electron is called the ionization potential. Electron affinity is a characteristic opposite to the ionization energy, and shows the magnitude of the binding energy of an additional electron in a negative ion.
Neutral atoms and molecules are ionized under the action of optical radiation quanta, X-ray and g-radiation, electric field upon collision with other atoms, particles, etc.
In gases, ions are formed mainly under the action of impacts of high-energy particles or during photoionization under the action of ultraviolet, x-rays and g-rays (see Ionizing radiation (cm. IONIZING RADIATIONS)). The ions formed in this way are short-lived under normal conditions. At high temperatures, the ionization of atoms and ions (thermal ionization, i.e., thermal dissociation with electron separation) can also occur as an equilibrium process (cm. EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS), in which the degree of ionization increases with increasing temperature and decreasing pressure. In this case, the gas passes into the plasma state (cm. PLASMA).
Ions in gases play an important role in many phenomena. Under natural conditions, ions are formed in the air under the action of cosmic rays, solar radiation or electric discharge (lightning). The presence of ions, their type and concentration affect many of the physical properties of the air, its physiological activity.

encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .

See what "ions" are in other dictionaries:

IONS- (from the Greek. ion going, wandering), atoms or chemical. radicals that carry electrical charges. Story. As Faraday first established, the conduction of an electric current in solutions is associated with the movement of material particles that carry ... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia

IONS, electrically charged particles formed from an atom (molecule) as a result of the loss or gain of one or more electrons. Positively charged ions are called cations, negatively charged ions are called anions. Modern Encyclopedia

ions- - electrically charged atoms or molecules. General chemistry: textbook / A. V. Zholnin Ions are electrically charged particles that arise when electrons are lost or gained by atoms, molecules and radicals. Dictionary of Analytical Chemistry ... ... Chemical terms

Decomposition products of any body by means of electrolysis. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

An ion (Greek ιόν “going”) is an electrically charged particle (atom, molecule), usually formed as a result of the loss or gain of one or more electrons by atoms or molecules. The charge of an ion is a multiple of the charge of an electron. Concept and ... ... Wikipedia

ions- (from the Greek ion going) electrically charged particles formed by the loss or gain of electrons (or other charged particles) by atoms or groups of atoms (molecules, radicals, etc.). The concept and term ions were introduced in 1834 ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Metallurgy

- (from the Greek. going), monatomic or polyatomic particles that carry electricity. charge, eg. H +, Li+, Al3+, NH4+, F, SO42. Positive I. are called cations (from the Greek. kation, literally going down), negative an and on and m and (from the Greek. anion, ... ... Chemical Encyclopedia

- (from the Greek ión going) electrically charged particles formed when electrons (or other charged particles) are lost or gained by atoms or groups of atoms. Such groups of atoms can be molecules, radicals, or other I. ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

ions- physical. particles that carry a positive or negative charge. Positively charged ions carry fewer electrons than they should, and negative ones more ... Universal additional practical explanatory dictionary by I. Mostitsky

- (physical) According to the terminology introduced into the doctrine of electricity by the famous Faraday, a body subjected to decomposition by the action of a galvanic current on it is called an electrolyte, decomposition in this way is electrolysis, and decomposition products are ions. ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

AIR IS THE PASTURE OF LIFE

Air is a mixture of gases that forms a protective shell around the Earth, called the atmosphere.

Air necessary for life on Earth - for respiration and for plant nutrition. The air also protects the Earth's surface from dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Air consists of nitrogen - 78%, oxygen - 21%, other gases - 1%.

An oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its outer shell. In order to become stable, it needs to fill its shell with two more electrons, so the air oxygen molecule easily attaches 1 or 2 free elements to itself, ionizes and turns into an oxygen air ion (anion) of negative polarity. Ions are atoms or molecules that have lost or gained an electron, due to which they have received a positive or negative charge.

As a result of the loss or gain of one or more electrons, an atom becomes an ion. All ions are electrically charged particles. The charge in an ion arises due to the fact that the number of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons becomes different.

An atom that has lost an electron becomes a positively charged ion - a cation (from the Greek kation, literally - going down). An atom that has acquired an electron becomes a negatively charged ion - an anion (from the Greek anion, literally going up).

Atmospheric air always contains both negative and positive particles. The main source of this natural ionization is present in the air:

1. Gaseous decay products of radium and thorium in the air. They cause the dissociation of air molecules, giving rise to negatively charged oxygen molecules, called light air ions.

2. Gamma radiation of radium salts, which are in the surface layer of the earth's crust in an insignificant amount. It has been established that almost all rocks are radioactive. Natural waters also contain salts of radioactive substances.

3. Solar radiation.

4. Ultraviolet light from the Sun.

5. Cosmic rays.

6. Electrical discharges in the atmosphere (lightning, discharges on mountain tops).

7. Crushing and spraying of water over waterfalls, the surface of the sea during the surf and high tide, sea storm, in the rain - this is a balloelectric effect.

8. Triboelectric effect - mutual friction of grains of sand, dust particles, snow, hail.

9. Decay of organic substances, various chemical reactions, BUY
flowing on the soil surface, the evaporation of water.

In the mountain air near waterfalls, turbulent rivers, on the sea coast during intense surf, the number of light negatively charged anions increases sharply. It is enough to stay in negatively ionized air for a few minutes, as the electric potential of all body cells begins to increase and then stays at the reached level for a long time.

This means that the body's electrostatic "baggage" can be controlled.

Under the influence of oxygen of negative polarity, the quality of organ functions and the general neuropsychic state of the body change.

How do negative ions affect a person?

* help a person feel better physically and mentally

* help to cope with stress

* Relieve muscle pain

* increase sexual activity

*help fight aggression and fatigue

*have some analgesic effect

* help in regulating blood pressure

* has a beneficial effect on the skin condition

* reduce cellular sclerosis

* help with coronary and respiratory problems, tonsillitis, etc.

* help in improving metabolism

Anions contribute to the cure of many diseases. These are diseases of the cardiovascular system, from which not only the elderly began to suffer, these are hypertension and angina pectoris, which also became younger. The success of the treatment of hypertension and hypotension is determined by the fact that negative oxygen ions stabilize the functional state of the central nervous system and hemodynamic center, change the tone of vascular smooth muscles, and reduce cholesterol. Ionized air has a beneficial effect on the respiratory and ENT systems of a person, aeroionotherapy is amenable to tonsillitis, seasonal catarrhs ​​and even the initial stages of tuberculosis. Anions increase working capacity, stimulate good appetite and make the intestines function properly, and also increase metabolism in the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract by more than 50%, and this accelerates the rate of regeneration and eliminates ulcerative defects. Neuroses, insomnia, migraines, irritability, fatigue recede under the action of anions, which reduce the excitability of the nervous system (including the autonomic one) and stabilize its tone at the optimal level. Negative oxygen ions give a good effect in vegetative-endocrine disorders. Negative oxygen ions can also give good results in cosmetology, they improve skin turgor and lead to the disappearance of premature wrinkles.

How do negative oxygen ions affect the cardiovascular system?

Most cardiovascular diseases are associated with a violation of blood clotting and the integrity of the walls of blood vessels. Blood components have a negative charge that prevents them from sticking together. With the loss of charge, blood viscosity increases, blood clots form. At the same time, cholesterol is deposited in the walls of the blood vessels, the vessels lose their elasticity, and their lumen narrows. This is the reason for the violation of pressure, heart attacks and strokes.

Negative oxygen ions restore the electrical charge on the blood cells, blood flow returns to normal. Experiments have shown that when air ions are inhaled, the vessels remain elestinal, and atherosclerotic plaques do not form.

Thus, negative oxygen ions have an antithrombotic effect and an antiatherosclerotic effect, which helps to reduce the risk of cardiovascular accidents.

In the treatment of hypertension with oxygen ions, A.L. Chizhevsky noted a decrease in blood pressure in patients by 10-20 units after the first session. Then the pressure rose almost to the initial level, and after 30-35 sessions it steadily returned to normal. Moreover, the results were the more successful, the worse was the initial condition of the patients.

Why do light air ions help preserve youth?

Over the years, significant changes occur in the human body: the amount of water in the tissues decreases, the magnitude of the electrical charge of cells decreases, tissue electrical exchange worsens, that is, a gradual electrical discharge of the body occurs. All these changes are characteristic of aging.

So, if you slow down the electrical discharge, constantly breathing air with the optimal amount of air ions, you can stop old age.

In the laboratories of the Mordovian State University, it was found that oxygen ions reduce the content of free radicals in the blood, which destroy cell molecules and lead to aging.

University of California professor M. Rose discovered a regenerator gene that renews cells. With age, its activity decreases, which leads to aging. It is possible that life extension by oxygen ions is due to the fact that they increase the activity of the regenerator gene.

One way or another, the constant use of an air ionizer gives a person several additional years of life: breathing and skin condition improve, wrinkles recede, and hair stops falling out.

In the first experiments, A.L. Chizhevsky (1918-1924), experimental animals that inhaled negative oxygen ions lived 42% longer than their counterparts, and the period of activity and vigor was extended. A.L. Chizhevsky calculated that the drop in the electrical potential of cells to a level incompatible with life takes 180 years. Such is the period of life allotted to man by nature.

Numerous electrometric observations have shown that in 1 cm3 of air:

The concentration of negatively charged ions and its impact on human health:

The average life span of anions is 46-60 seconds. In clean air - 100 seconds or more.

Anions are fast moving. The average speed of their movement is 1-2 cm/sec. The mobility of a negatively charged ion exceeds the mobility of positively charged ions by hundreds of times.

Numerous observations show that negative polarity ionization sharply improves the physiological state of experimental animals, while the predominance of positive charges with a deficit of negative ones turns out to be harmful for them.

This action of ions, as is known, was discovered and used at the beginning of the last century by the great Russian scientist Chizhevsky. He proposed to enrich the indoor air with negative ions using air ionizers designed by him, generators of negative ions. He believed that it was especially important to do this in stone buildings containing an excess of positive ions and a lack of negative ones.

For the first time, air ions were "offered" to animals on January 2, 1919. The first results were obtained very quickly: "negative air ions have a good effect on the body, while positive ones, on the contrary, are harmful to health, negatively affect the growth, weight, appetite, behavior and appearance of animals."

After a series of experiments, Chizhevsky came to the conclusion that aeroionization can become a significant factor in solving the problem of maintaining health and lengthening human life.
This is how the well-known Chizhevsky chandelier appeared.

Modern Habitat

Recently, American psychoanalysts have drawn attention to one feature of their patients: those who complain of a gloomy mood, the right nostril is wider than the left. We checked how things are going with optimists, it turned out that, on the contrary, their left nostril is wider than the right one. This accidental observation, analyzed together with physiologists and otolaryngologists, made it possible to express an original hypothesis about the connection between the method of nasal breathing and the mental state of a person.

What does it have to do with the mood of a person, which nostril he inhales air? And in general, maybe he breathes both at the same time or alternately one or the other. Indeed, at first glance, the hypothesis of American psychoanalysts is perceived as a hoax. But let's leave the floor to the experts.

According to otolaryngologists, according to statistics, in most people the right nostril is somewhat wider than the left, and many people breathe mainly through the right nostril. Moreover, as a result of the curvature of the nasal septum, breathing of the left nostril is much more difficult.

According to some physiologists, it's all about saturating the body with ions. With air during breathing, positive and negative ions enter the human body. At the same time, the human nose works as a filter: during nasal breathing, negative ions enter the body mainly through the left nostril, and positive ones through the right.

The right and left halves of the nose differ in the sharpness of smell. Great sensitivity of the left side of the nose to odors was found in 71% of adults, the right side in 13%, the same sensitivity in 16%. In children, the numbers are completely different - 35%, 30% and 35%, respectively. As you can see, the asymmetry of smell in adults doubles compared to children. Scientists explain this by the curvature of the nasal septum, which occurs in most people after 30-40 years.

It is known that air enriched with negative ions has a beneficial effect on the general state of health and the human psyche. Negative ions are called ions of health and good mood. It is believed that the lack of negatively charged ions in the air of unventilated rooms (and, therefore, an excess of positive ions) does considerable harm to the body.

Negative ions, which are abundant in fresh air, increase the tone of the autonomic nervous system through the receptors of the skin and mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. As a result, vitality increases, cheerfulness and good mood appear. That is why on the seashore, in the forest or even in the city after a thunderstorm, we with pleasure inhale the life-giving air. Why? Because it is enriched with negatively charged ions.

According to the ideas of yogis, in most people in the morning when they wake up, only the left nostril functions, corresponding to the lunar side of a person. At noon they breathe through both nostrils. In the evening, at the time of going to bed, the right nostril functions, interacting with the solar side.

We are accustomed to our mood rising or falling only due to external factors, weather, food, shopping, watching a movie, trouble or success at work. An invited toastmaster to a wedding cheers up hundreds of guests, and a humorous program brings a smile to the face of thousands of viewers! And what will happen if external factors are excluded, leaving a person with himself?

Psychologists, linking the data they have, came to a practical conclusion: you can improve your mood with the help of breathing.

It is necessary to increase the flow of negative ions through the left nostril and at the same time hinder the flow of positive ions through the right nostril. To do this, it is enough to periodically close the right nostril for several minutes and breathe only with the left.

This recommendation is so simple that everyone can immediately experience it for themselves. First, breathe alternately with the right and left nostrils to compare the ease of passage of air. It’s good if you have noticeably easier air flow through your left nostril. But even if it's not, don't be sad. Press your right nostril with your finger or insert a tampon into it and inhale through the left nostril for two to three minutes. After several such sessions with an interval of about half an hour, you will surely feel that your mood is improving.

It can be suspected that this is due to self-hypnosis. But the test showed that it plays only a secondary role. To verify the correctness of the hypothesis, experiments were carried out during sleep, when our consciousness is turned off. The subjects were inserted into the right nostril at night with a tampon, and in the morning even those of them who are prone to depressive states woke up in a good mood.

This conclusion of Western psychotherapists surprisingly coincides with the ideas of Eastern healers. Master instructor of the healing Tao Sergey Oreshkin, who has discovered many secrets of oriental medicine, tells how to fall asleep correctly:

Each person should know his sleepy nostril. Usually, she is on the left. Why? Because the left nostril is directly connected to the right hemisphere. During wakefulness, we solve a lot of questions by straining the left hemisphere, which is responsible for logic. Sleep time is given to us in order to balance these two hemispheres. When we begin to breathe more actively through the left nostril, we energize our right hemisphere

As you know, in the East much attention is paid to proper breathing. It is long and painstakingly taught to those who want to master yoga. But there are also simplified breathing techniques that are more accessible to a Westerner. One of them, proposed by Richard Hitleman, helps to quickly relieve stress and relax. Heathleman calls this technique alternating nostril breathing.

Place the index and middle fingers of your right hand in the middle of your forehead. In this case, the thumb will be on the right side of the nose, and the ring and little fingers on the left.

1. Close your right nostril with your thumb. Take a slow deep breath in through your left nostril so that your lungs fill up as you count to eight.

2. Close your left nostril (now both are closed) and hold your breath for eight seconds.

3. Release the right nostril (keeping the left pinched) and exhale evenly through the right nostril, counting to eight.

4. When you have finished exhaling, do not stop, but immediately start inhaling through the right nostril, counting eight seconds.

5. Close both nostrils and hold your breath for a count of eight.

6. Now exhale through the left nostril for eight seconds.

Do all these steps in a mirror image, that is, start by inhaling through the right nostril (pinching the left nostril).

Such alternate breathing, as it were, equalizes the activity between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. According to my own observations, it not only relaxes but also improves mood.

Scheme of soothing alternate breathing by R. Hitleman

Inhale on the left......8

Pause.............8

Exhale to the right...8

Inhale on the right.....8

Pause.............8

Exhale on the left.....8

Tysinyuk N.M. On the chemical composition of light ions and their effect on people's well-being

Millions of people, especially in old age, experience periodic deterioration in well-being, often coinciding with sudden changes in the weather. Chronic diseases are exacerbated, long-healed wounds are aching, pain in the joints and muscles is felt, mental and neurological diseases are aggravated, working capacity is reduced even in healthy people, accidents in transport and production are increasing, mortality is increasing for a variety of reasons, especially in cardiovascular diseases. . Small children also feel sudden changes in the weather. The influence of weather conditions, as a rule, is explained by changes in atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity. It is easy to prove that these weather parameters in most cases have nothing to do with human suffering. In everyday life, we are affected by significantly greater fluctuations in atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity, but we do not even notice it. Having taken the elevator to the top floor, a person experiences in a few seconds such a change in atmospheric pressure that does not occur in nature. We experience the same thing with regard to temperature and air humidity when we leave the apartment on the street on a frosty day.

Consequently, other factors that are associated with weather changes cause pain in people. These factors are the so-called light ions. The fact that ions affect living organisms has long been known. The Russian scientist A.L. Chizhevsky experimentally proved that the effect of ions on humans and animals depends on their charge sign. Negative ions have a beneficial effect on living organisms. This feature of ions is used to treat certain respiratory diseases. Positive ions cause exacerbation of cardiovascular and other chronic diseases. The mechanism of this effect remains not fully understood.

Let's try to explain the reason for the ambiguous effect of ions of different charge signs on people's well-being. To solve this problem, it is necessary, first of all, to determine the chemical composition of light ions. As you know, air contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and about 1% other gases. As a result of the action of ionizing radiation of terrestrial and cosmic origin, neutral molecules of air gases are ionized with the formation of a free electron and a positive molecular ion. In the process of chaotic motion, neutral oxygen molecules collide and stick to an electron. Nitrogen molecules do not stick to an electron and a negative ion, as they have no electron affinity. This is a physical property of molecular nitrogen. Thus, negative light ions consist of several tens of oxygen molecules with a small admixture of gases other than nitrogen.

Approximately the same number of neutral molecules of these gases stick to the positive molecular ions of oxygen and nitrogen. But, firstly, there is 3.7 times more nitrogen in the air than oxygen, so the probability of the former sticking is as much greater. Secondly, a neutral nitrogen molecule has a proton affinity energy that is 15% greater than an oxygen molecule (4.8 and 4.1 electron volts, respectively), so it adheres to positive ions more vigorously, displacing oxygen molecules. As a result, positive light ions are formed, consisting mainly of nitrogen molecules.

Thus, the chemical composition of light ions is determined by their charge: negative ions are composed of oxygen molecules, and positive ions are composed of nitrogen molecules.

We explain the influence of light ions on the well-being of people not by their charge, but by their chemical composition.

Negative ions, consisting of oxygen, entering the bloodstream, enhance oxidative processes, facilitate breathing, and have a beneficial effect on the entire body.

Neutral nitrogen does not dissolve in the blood and, when exhaled, is completely excreted without changes. Positive ions, consisting of nitrogen molecules, dissolve well in liquids, including blood. Once in the process of breathing into the blood, they break up into individual nitrogen molecules. Nitrogen that is not associated with other chemical elements in people with poor kidney function is not excreted from the body, fills blood vessels and capillaries in the form of microbubbles, and accumulates in the region of the heart, creating additional difficulties in blood circulation. This is felt in the form of malaise, headaches, increased blood pressure, and so on.

Under normal conditions, when the concentration of ions in the atmosphere does not exceed 10 3 ions per 1 cm 3, an insignificant amount of nitrogen enters the blood, which does not create any special problems for well-being and health. With a significant increase in the number of ions in the atmosphere, the concentration of nitrogen entering the body may exceed the ability of the kidneys to remove it from the body. In this case, there is a gradual accumulation of free nitrogen in the blood. The state of health in people with cardiovascular and other diseases worsens a few hours after the onset of this factor, and sometimes even after the cessation, when a sufficient amount of nitrogen accumulates in the blood. Therefore, it is often difficult to link deterioration in well-being with the factor that caused this deterioration.

The concentration of light ions in the atmosphere, including positive ones, depends on weather conditions, the level of radioactive contamination of the area, as well as on corpuscular and hard electromagnetic radiation coming to Earth from the Sun and from Space. The Moon makes certain adjustments to the corpuscular flow coming to the Earth. That is why we link our well-being to the weather, the activity of the Sun, the phases of the Moon and the increased radioactive background. The influence of the latter factor was felt by thousands of people in the conditions of radioactive contamination of the terrain and air as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Small doses of ionizing radiation, which ionize and destroy the components of cells, are practically not felt by a person until a disease of some organ occurs. Sensitivity to low doses of radiation is caused by the above positive light ions formed in the air as a result of the action of ionizing radiation. The mechanism of impact on people's well-being of positive light ions operates regardless of their origin: high-energy charged particles of solar or cosmic origin, convective or other phenomena in the atmosphere, or radioactive decay products of man-made or natural origin. A person, depending on age, the state of the cardiovascular system and the performance of the kidneys, to one degree or another feels an increased concentration of positive ions.

It is possible to eliminate or reduce the effect of light ions on people's well-being by using special filters that clean the inhaled air from positive ions.

In addition to positive light ions, other natural factors also affect our well-being. We are talking about the so-called biologically active radiation. These radiations have a global impact on all biological objects, including humans. The mechanism of the impact of biologically active radiation on the well-being of people is completely different from that of positive ions, but the occurrence of these radiations is associated with the same weather conditions, the activity of the Sun and, to some extent, depends on the phases of the Moon.

L I T E R A T U R A

1. Yagodinsky V.N. Alexander Leonidovich Chizhevsky. M. Science. 1987. 315 p.

2. Radtsig A.A., Smirnov B.M. Handbook of Atomic and Molecular Physics. M. Atomizdat. 1980. 240 p.

3. Tverskoy P.N. Meteorology course. L. Gidrometizdat. 1962. 693 p.

Ions (from the Greek ion - going), electrically charged particles formed as a result of the loss or addition of one or more electrons (or other charged particles) to an atom, molecule, radical or other ion. Positively charged ions are called cations, negatively charged ions are called anions. The term was proposed by M. Faraday in 1834.

Ions are denoted by a chemical symbol with an index located at the top right. The index indicates the sign and magnitude of the charge, i.e., the multiplicity of the ion, in units of the electron charge. With the loss or acquisition of electrons by atom 1, 2, 3 ..., one-, two- and three-charged ions are formed, respectively (see Ionization), for example, Na +, Ca 2+, Al 3+, Cl -, SO 4 2 - .

Atomic ions are also denoted by the chemical symbol of the element with Roman numerals indicating the multiplicity of the ion, in this case the Roman numerals are spectroscopic symbols and their value is greater than the charge per unit, i.e. NI means a neutral atom N, the ion designation NII means a singly charged ion N + , NIII means N 2+ .

A sequence of ions of different chemical elements containing the same number of electrons forms an isoelectronic series.

Ions can be part of the molecules of substances, forming molecules due to ionic bonding. In the form of independent particles, in an unbound state, ions are found in all aggregate states of matter - in gases (in particular, in the atmosphere), in liquids (in melts and in solutions), in crystals. In liquids, depending on the nature of the solvent and solute, ions can exist indefinitely, for example, the Na + ion in an aqueous solution of common salt NaCl. Salts in the solid state usually form ionic crystals. The crystal lattice of metals consists of positively charged ions, inside of which there is an "electron gas". The interaction energy of atomic ions can be calculated using various approximate methods that take into account the interatomic interaction.

The formation of ions occurs in the process of ionization. To remove an electron from a neutral atom or molecule, it is necessary to expend a certain energy, which is called the ionization energy. The ionization energy per charge of an electron is called the ionization potential. Electron affinity is a characteristic opposite to the ionization energy, and shows the magnitude of the binding energy of an additional electron in a negative ion.

Neutral atoms and molecules are ionized under the action of optical radiation quanta, X-ray and g-radiation, electric field upon collision with other atoms, particles, etc.

In gases, ions are formed mainly under the action of impacts of high-energy particles or during photoionization under the action of ultraviolet, x-rays and g-rays (see Ionizing radiation). The ions formed in this way are short-lived under normal conditions. At high temperatures, the ionization of atoms and ions (thermal ionization, i.e., thermal dissociation with electron separation) can also occur as an equilibrium process in which the degree of ionization increases with increasing temperature and decreasing pressure. In this case, the gas passes into the plasma state.

Ions in gases play an important role in many phenomena. Under natural conditions, ions are formed in the air under the action of cosmic rays, solar radiation or electric discharge (lightning). The presence of ions, their type and concentration affect many of the physical properties of the air, its physiological activity.

And he- a monatomic or polyatomic electrically charged particle of a substance, formed as a result of the loss or accession of an atom in the molecule of one or more electrons.

The charge of an ion is a multiple of the charge of an electron. The concept and term "ion" was introduced in 1834 by Michael Faraday, who, studying the effect of electric current on aqueous solutions of acids, alkalis and salts, suggested that the electrical conductivity of such solutions is due to the movement of ions. Positively charged ions moving in solution to the negative pole (cathode), Faraday called cations, and negatively charged, moving towards the positive pole (anode) - anions.

Ion properties are determined:

1) the sign and magnitude of their charge;
2) the structure of the ions, i.e., the arrangement of the electrons and the strength of their bonds, with the outer electrons being especially important;
3) their sizes determined by the radius of the orbit of the outer electron.
4) strength of the electron shell (deformability of ions).

In the form of independent particles, ions are found in all aggregate states of matter: in gases (in particular, in the atmosphere), in liquids (in melts and solutions), in crystals and in plasma (in particular, in interstellar space).

Being chemically active particles, ions react with atoms, molecules and among themselves. In solutions, ions are formed as a result of electrolytic dissociation and determine the properties of electrolytes.

The number of elementary electric charges of ions in solutions almost always coincides with the valency of a given atom or group; gas ions can also have a different number of elementary charges. Under the influence of sufficiently energetic influences (high temperature, high frequency radiation, high speed electrons), positive ions with a different number of electrons, up to bare nuclei, can be formed. Positive ions are indicated by a + (plus) sign or a dot (for example, Mg ***, Al +++), negative ions by a - (minus) or "(Cl -, Br") sign. The number of signs indicates the number of excess elementary charges. Most often, ions are formed with stable outer electron shells corresponding to the noble gas shell. The ions from which crystals are built, and the ions found in solutions and solvents with high dielectric constants, mostly belong to this type, for example, alkali and alkaline earth metals, halides, etc. However, there are also so-called. transition ions, in which the outer shells contain from 9 to 17 electrons; these ions can pass relatively easily into ions of a different type and significance (for example, Fe - -, Cu ", etc.).

Chemical and physical properties

The chemical and physical properties of ions differ sharply from the properties of neutral atoms, resembling in many respects the properties of atoms of other elements that have the same number of electrons and the same outer electron shell (for example, K "resembles Ar, F" - Ne). Simple ions, as wave mechanics shows, have a spherical shape. The dimensions of an ion are characterized by the magnitude of their radii, which can be determined empirically from the data of X-ray analysis of crystals (Goldschmidt) or calculated theoretically by the methods of wave mechanics (Pauliig) or statistics (Fermi). The results obtained by both methods give quite satisfactory agreement. A number of properties of crystals and solutions are determined by the radii of the ions of which they are composed; in crystals, these properties are the energy of the crystal lattice and, to a large extent, its type; in solutions, ions polarize and attract solvent molecules, forming shells of variable composition, this polarization and the strength of the bond between ions and solvent molecules are determined almost exclusively by the radii and charges of the ions. How strong the action of the ion field on solvent molecules is shown by the calculations of Zwicky, who found that water molecules are near ions under a pressure of about 50,000 atm. The strength (deformability) of the outer electron shell depends on the degree of bonding of the outer electrons and determines mainly the optical properties of the ions (color, refraction). However, the color of ions is also associated with the formation of ions of various compounds with solvent molecules. Theoretical calculations of the effects associated with the deformation of electron shells are more difficult and less endowed than calculations of the forces of interaction between ions. The reasons for the formation of ions in solutions are not exactly known; the most plausible opinion is that the molecules of soluble substances are broken into ions by the molecular field of the solvent; heteropolar, i.e., crystals built from ions, apparently give ions immediately upon dissolution. The value of the molecular field of the solvent is confirmed as if by a parallelism between the dielectric constant of the solvent, which is an approximate measure of the voltage of its molecular field, and the degree of dissociation (the Nernst-Thomson rule, experimentally confirmed by Walden). However, ionization also occurs in substances with low dielectric constants, but here it is predominantly electrolytes that dissolve, giving complex ions. Complexes are sometimes formed from ions of the solute, sometimes the solvent also takes part in their formation. For substances with low dielectric constants, the formation of complex ions is also characteristic when non-electrolytes are added, for example (C 2 H 5) 0Br 3 gives, when mixed with chloroform, a conductive
system. An external sign of the formation of complex ions is the so-called. anomalous electrical conductivity, in which a graph depicting the dependence of molar electrical conductivity on dilution gives a maximum in the region of concentrated solutions and a minimum in further dilution.

Nomenclature According to chemical nomenclature, the name of a cation consisting of one atom coincides with the name of the element, for example, Na + is called sodium ion, sometimes a charge is added in brackets, for example, the name of the Fe 2+ cation is iron (II) ion. The name consists of a single atom, the anion is formed from the root of the Latin name of the element and the suffix " -id/-id”, for example, F - is called the fluoride ion.