In order to thoroughly understand how the First World War (1914-1918) began, you must first familiarize yourself with the political situation that developed in Europe by the beginning of the 20th century. The prehistory of the global military conflict was the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). It ended with the complete defeat of France, and the confederal union of German states was transformed into the German Empire. Wilhelm I became its head on January 18, 1871. Thus, a powerful state appeared in Europe with a population of 41 million people and an army of almost 1 million soldiers.

The political situation in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century

At first, the German Empire did not seek political dominance in Europe, as it was economically weak. But in 15 years, the country has gained strength and began to claim a more worthy place in the Old World. It must be said here that politics is always determined by the economy, and German capital had very few markets. This can be explained by the fact that Germany in its colonial expansion hopelessly lagged behind Great Britain, Spain, Belgium, France, and Russia.

Map of Europe by 1914. Germany and its allies are shown in brown. Entente countries are shown in green

It is also necessary to take into account the small areas of the state, the population of which was growing rapidly. It required food, but it was not enough. In a word, Germany gained strength, and the world was already divided, and no one was going to voluntarily give up the promised lands. There was only one way out - to take away the tidbits by force and provide their capital and people with a decent and prosperous life.

The German Empire did not hide its ambitious claims, but it could not stand alone against England, France and Russia. Therefore, in 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed a military-political bloc (Triple Alliance). Its consequence was the Moroccan crises (1905-1906, 1911) and the Italo-Turkish war (1911-1912). It was a test of strength, a rehearsal for a more serious and large-scale military conflict.

In response to the growing German aggression in 1904-1907, a military-political bloc of cordial consent (Entente) was formed, which included England, France and Russia. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, two powerful military forces were formed on the territory of Europe. One of them, led by Germany, sought to expand its living space, and the other force tried to counteract these plans in order to protect its economic interests.

Germany's ally Austria-Hungary was a hotbed of instability in Europe. It was a multinational country, which constantly provoked interethnic conflicts. In October 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Herzegovina and Bosnia. This caused sharp dissatisfaction with Russia, which had the status of a defender of the Slavs in the Balkans. Russia was supported by Serbia, which considered itself the unifying center of the southern Slavs.

A tense political situation was observed in the Middle East. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire that once dominated here began to be called the “sick man of Europe”. And therefore, stronger countries began to claim its territory, which provoked political disagreements and wars of a local nature. All of the above information has given a general idea of ​​the prerequisites for a global military conflict, and now it's time to find out how the First World War began.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

The political situation in Europe was heating up every day and by 1914 had reached its peak. All that was needed was a small push, a pretext for unleashing a global military conflict. And soon such an occasion presented itself. It went down in history as the Sarajevo murder, and it happened on June 28, 1914.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophia

On that ill-fated day, a member of the nationalist organization "Mlada Bosna" (Young Bosnia) Gavrilo Princip (1894-1918) killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) and his wife, Countess Sofia Hotek (1868-1914). "Mlada Bosna" advocated the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the rule of Austria-Hungary and was ready to use any methods for this, including terrorist ones.

The Archduke and his wife arrived in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, at the invitation of the Austro-Hungarian governor, General Oskar Potiorek (1853-1933). Everyone knew about the arrival of the crowned couple in advance, and the members of Mlada Bosna decided to kill Ferdinand. For this purpose, a battle group of 6 people was created. It consisted of young people, natives of Bosnia.

Early on the morning of Sunday, June 28, 1914, the royal couple arrived in Sarajevo by train. On the platform, she was met by Oskar Potiorek, journalists and an enthusiastic crowd of loyal associates. The arrivals and high-ranking greeters sat in 6 cars, while the Archduke and his wife were in the third car with a folded top. The motorcade pulled away and rushed towards the military barracks.

By 10 o'clock the inspection of the barracks was completed, and all 6 cars drove along the Appel embankment to the city hall. This time the car with the crowned couple moved second in the cortege. At 10:10 am, the moving cars caught up with one of the terrorists named Nedelko Chabrinovich. This young man threw a grenade at the car with the Archduke. But the grenade hit the convertible top, flew under the third car and exploded.

Detention of Gavrilo Princip, who killed Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

Shrapnel killed the driver of the car, injured passengers, as well as people who were at that moment near the car. A total of 20 people were injured. The terrorist himself swallowed potassium cyanide. However, that did not give the desired effect. The man vomited, and he, escaping from the crowd, jumped into the river. But the river in that place was very shallow. The terrorist was dragged ashore, and angry people brutally beat him. After that, the crippled conspirator was handed over to the police.

After the explosion, the cortege picked up speed and rushed to the city hall without incident. There, a magnificent reception awaited the crowned couple, and, despite the assassination attempt, the solemn part took place. At the end of the celebration, it was decided to curtail the further program due to the emergency situation. It was decided only to go to the hospital to visit the wounded there. At 10:45 a.m., the cars started off again and drove along Franz Josef Street.

Another terrorist, Gavrilo Princip, was waiting for the moving cortege. He was standing outside Moritz Schiller's Delicatessen, next to the Latin Bridge. Seeing a crowned couple sitting in a convertible car, the conspirator stepped forward, caught up with the car and was near it at a distance of only one and a half meters. He fired twice. The first bullet hit Sophia in the stomach, and the second in Ferdinand's neck.

After the execution of people, the conspirator tried to poison himself, but, like the first terrorist, he only vomited. Then Princip made an attempt to shoot himself, but people ran up, took away the gun and started beating the 19-year-old man. He was so beaten that in the prison hospital the killer had to amputate his hand. Subsequently, the court sentenced Gavrilo Princip to 20 years of hard labor, since, according to the laws of Austria-Hungary, he was a minor at the time of the crime. In prison, the young man was kept in the most difficult conditions and died of tuberculosis on April 28, 1918.

Wounded by the conspirator, Ferdinand and Sophia remained sitting in the car, which rushed to the governor's residence. There, they were going to provide medical assistance to the injured. But the couple died on the way. First, Sophia died, and after 10 minutes Ferdinand gave her soul to God. Thus ended the Sarajevo massacre, which became the reason for the start of the First World War.

July Crisis

The July crisis is a series of diplomatic clashes between the leading powers of Europe in the summer of 1914, provoked by the Sarajevo assassination. Of course, this political conflict could be resolved peacefully, but the powerful of this world really wanted war. And such a desire was based on the belief that the war would be very short and effective. But it took on a protracted character and claimed more than 20 million human lives.

Funeral of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Countess Sofia

After the assassination of Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary stated that Serbian state structures were behind the conspirators. At the same time, Germany publicly announced to the whole world that in the event of a military conflict in the Balkans, she would support Austria-Hungary. This statement was made on July 5, 1914, and on July 23, Austria-Hungary issued a tough ultimatum to Serbia. In particular, in it the Austrians demanded that their police officers be allowed into the territory of Serbia to investigate and punish terrorist groups.

The Serbs could not agree to such a thing and announced mobilization in the country. Literally two days later, on July 26, the Austrians also announced mobilization and began to gather troops to the borders of Serbia and Russia. The final touch in this local conflict was July 28. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade. After the artillery preparation, the Austrian troops crossed the Serbian border.

On July 29, Russian Emperor Nicholas II proposed to Germany to resolve the Austro-Serbian conflict at the Hague Conference by peaceful means. But Germany did not respond to this. Then, on July 31, a general mobilization was announced in the Russian Empire. In response, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, and war on France on August 3. Already on August 4, German troops entered Belgium, and its king Albert turned to the European countries-guarantors of its neutrality.

After that, Great Britain sent a note of protest to Berlin and demanded an immediate end to the invasion of Belgium. The German government ignored the note, and Great Britain declared war on Germany. And the final touch of this universal madness was August 6th. On this day, Austria-Hungary declared war on the Russian Empire. This is how the First World War began.

Soldiers in World War I

It officially lasted from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918. Military operations were conducted in Central and Eastern Europe, the Balkans, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Africa, China, and Oceania. Nothing like this before the human civilization did not know. It was the largest military conflict that shook the state foundations of the leading countries of the planet. After the war, the world became different, but humanity did not grow wiser and by the middle of the 20th century unleashed an even larger massacre that claimed many more lives..

World War I 1914-18 World War I 1914-18 - a war between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Japan, Italy, Romania, the USA, etc.; a total of 38 states). The reason for the war was the assassination in Sarajevo by a member of the Young Bosnia terrorist organization of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. July 15 (28), 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, July 19 (August 1) Germany - Russia, July 21 (August 3) - France, July 22 (August 4) Great Britain - Germany. Having created a superiority in troops on the Western Front, Germany in 1914 occupied Luxembourg and Belgium and began a rapid advance to the north of France towards Paris. However, already in 1914 the German plan to quickly defeat France failed; this was facilitated by the offensive of the Russian troops in East Prussia, which forced Germany to withdraw part of the troops from the Western Front. In August-September 1914, Russian troops defeated the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia, in late 1914 - early 1915 Turkish troops in the Transcaucasus. In 1915, the forces of the Central Powers, conducting a strategic defense on the Western Front, forced the Russian troops to leave Galicia, Poland, part of the Baltic states, and defeated Serbia. In 1916, after an unsuccessful attempt by the German troops to break through the Allied defenses in the Verdun region (France), the strategic initiative passed to the Entente. In addition, the heavy defeat inflicted on the Austro-German troops in May - July 1916 in Galicia actually predetermined the collapse of Germany's main ally - Austria-Hungary. In August 1916, influenced by the successes of the Entente, Romania entered the war on its side, but its troops acted unsuccessfully and were defeated at the end of 1916. At the same time, in the Caucasian theater, the initiative continued to be retained by the Russian army, which in 1916 occupied Erzurum and Trebizond. The collapse of the Russian army that began after the February Revolution of 1917 allowed Germany and its allies to intensify their operations on other fronts, which, however, did not change the situation as a whole. After the conclusion of the separate Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Russia (March 3, 1918), the German command launched a massive offensive on the Western Front. The troops of the Entente, having eliminated the results of the German breakthrough, went on the offensive, which ended in the defeat of the Central Powers. On September 29, 1918, Bulgaria capitulated, on October 30 - Turkey, on November 3 - Austria-Hungary, on November 11 - Germany. During the First World War, about 74 million people were mobilized, the total losses amounted to about 10 million killed and over 20 million wounded.

Historical dictionary. 2000 .

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World War I

Introduction

Much has gone forever from history with the volleys of the "salute of nations" that sounded on November 11, 1918 - too much for the historian's thoughts not to turn again and again to the events of the World Crisis.

The point is not only and not so much in the human victims of the Great War, the point is not in huge material and financial losses. Although these losses were many times greater than the conservative estimates of pre-war theorists, calling them "incalculable" or "beyond the human imagination" is unjustified. In absolute terms, human losses were less than from the influenza epidemic of 1918-1919, and material losses were inferior to the consequences of the 1929 crisis. As for relative figures, the First World War cannot bear any comparison with medieval plague epidemics. Nevertheless, it is the armed conflict of 1914 that is perceived by us (and was perceived by contemporaries) as a terrible, irreparable catastrophe that led to the psychological breakdown of the entire European civilization.

In this work, I will try to consider what economic and political motives allowed the world war to break out at the beginning of the last century and summarize this grandiose event.

1. Causes, nature and main stages of the First World War

Economic causes of the First World War

The world entered the 20th century under the conditions of a crushing industrial crisis of 1900-1901. It began almost simultaneously in the US and Russia, and soon the crisis became general, engulfing England, France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Belgium and other countries. The crisis hit the metallurgical industry, then affected the chemical, electrical and construction industries. It led to the ruin of a mass of enterprises, causing a rapid increase in unemployment. A serious shock for many countries that had barely coped with the consequences of the crisis at the turn of the century was the crisis of 1907.

Monopolies in the pursuit of profit influenced the sphere of pricing, which led to the creation of disproportions within the national economy of individual countries and intensified international economic contradictions. Thus, economic crises were associated not with failures in the sphere of commodity and money circulation, but with the policy of monopolies. This is what determined the peculiarities of the course of crises, their cyclical nature, depth, length and consequences.

Looking carefully at the pre-war political map of Europe, we will see that it is impossible to explain the nature and origin of the World Crisis of 1914 starting from the geopolitical interests of the countries participating in the conflict. Germany plays the role of the attacking side in the World War, having no meaningful territorial claims at all. France, acting under the banner of revenge and the return of lost territories, on the contrary, is on the defensive. Russia, which is destined by historical fate for the southern direction of expansion (the Straits and the Middle East), is planning operations against Berlin and Vienna. Perhaps only Turkey is trying (albeit unsuccessfully) to act in some way in accordance with its geopolitical goals.

Orthodox Marxism, which explains the origin of the First World War by economic reasons - primarily by the most acute competitive struggle between Germany and Great Britain, is probably closer to the truth than the geopolitical concept. In any case, the British-German economic rivalry did take place. The sharp increase in industrial production in Germany (with a relatively low cost of labor) seriously undermined the position of the UK in the markets and forced the UK government to move to a protectionist trade policy.

By the beginning of the XX century. the struggle of the capitalist powers for markets and sources of raw materials has become extremely acute.

Political reasons

Russian foreign policy after 1905

Russo-Japanese War and Revolution 1905-1907 worsened the situation in the country. The army was demoralized and incapacitated, finances were in disorder. Domestic political problems made it difficult for tsarist diplomacy to pursue such a foreign policy that would allow the country to avoid participation in international conflicts. But the rivalry between the great powers was getting too sharp. Anglo-German antagonism came to the fore. Under these conditions, back in 1904, London agreed with Paris on the division of spheres of influence. This is how the Anglo-French Entente took shape. Allied to France, Russia was in no hurry to get closer to England. Germany actively sought to involve Russia in the wake of its policy and split the Franco-Russian alliance. In 1905, during a meeting between Nicholas II and Wilhelm II in Bjerka, the Kaiser persuaded the tsar to sign an agreement on mutual assistance in the event of an attack on one of the parties. Despite the indignation of Wilhelm II, the Bjork agreement, which was in conflict with the alliance treaty with France, had no practical results and in the autumn of 1905 was essentially annulled by Russia. The logic of the development of international relations pushed the autocracy in the direction of the Entente. In 1907, a Russian-Japanese agreement on political issues was signed. The parties agreed to maintain the "status quo" in the Far East. At the same time, Russian-English conventions on Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet were concluded. Persia was divided into three zones: northern (Russian sphere of influence), southeast (English sphere of influence) and central (neutral). Afghanistan was recognized as a sphere of influence of England.

These agreements became an important stage in the process of forming an anti-German coalition. In 1908, Minister of Foreign Affairs A.P. Izvolsky, during negotiations with his Austrian colleague A. Erenthal, agreed to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary, occupied by the Austrians after the Berlin Congress (1878), having received in exchange a promise not to object to the opening of the Black Sea straits for Russian military ships. However, England and France did not support the claims of tsarist diplomacy. Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia in March 1909, demanding recognition of this act. The tsarist government was forced to yield. The Bosnian crisis turned into a "diplomatic Tsushima" for the autocracy. A.P. Izvolsky was dismissed in 1910, S.D. was appointed instead. Sazonov. Despite the deterioration of Russian-German relations, Germany still tried to draw Russia into the orbit of its policy. But she failed to achieve the desired results, and only in the summer of 1911 an agreement was signed concerning only the Persian question (the Potsdam Agreement), which actually did not lead to the settlement of disputed problems.

The prologue to the First World War was the attack on Turkey by Italy in 1911 heralded another aggravation of the Eastern question. Without waiting for the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Italian government decided to carry out its colonial claims to Tripolitania and Cyrenaica by force of arms. And the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. In 1912, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, united as a result of the active efforts of Russian diplomacy, started a war against Turkey and defeated it. Soon the winners quarreled with each other. This was facilitated by Germany and Austria-Hungary, who viewed the formation of the Balkan Union as a success for Russian diplomacy. They took measures aimed at its collapse, and pushed Bulgaria to act against Serbia and Greece. During the second Balkan war, Bulgaria, against which Romania and Turkey also began hostilities, was defeated. All these events significantly exacerbated the Russian-German and Russian-Austrian contradictions. Turkey more and more submitted to German influence. German General L. Von Sanders in 1913 was appointed commander of the Turkish corps, located in the region of Constantinople, which was rightly regarded by St. Petersburg as a serious threat to Russian interests in the strait zone. Only with great difficulty did Russia succeed in moving L. Von Sanders to another post.

The tsarist government, realizing the country's unpreparedness for war and relying on the (defeat) of a new revolution, sought to delay an armed clash with Germany and Austria-Hungary. At the same time, in the context of the progressive deterioration of relations with its Western neighbors, it tried to conclude an alliance with England. But the latter did not want to bind herself with any obligations. At the same time, the allied relations between Russia and France by 1914 were significantly strengthened. In 1911-1913. at the meetings of the chiefs of the Russian and French general staffs, decisions were made that provided for an increase in the number of troops deployed against Germany in the event of war, and an acceleration of the time for their concentration. The naval headquarters of England and France concluded a naval convention entrusting the protection of the Atlantic coast of France to the English fleet, and the protection of England's interests in the Mediterranean - to the French.

The Entente as a coalition of England, France and Russia, directed against the Triple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (the latter, however, had already actually moved away from its partners, it was replaced by Turkey), was becoming a reality, despite the fact that England was not connected with Russia and France by an alliance treaty5. The formation of two blocs of great powers hostile to each other, which took place against the backdrop of an intensified arms race, created a situation in the world that threatened at any moment to turn into a military conflict on a global scale.

Events in Sarajevo. On June 15 (28), 1914, a Serbian student from the national-terrorist organization "Black Hand" Gavrilo Princip shot the heir to the Austrian throne Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. This happened in the Bosnian town of Sarajevo, where the Archduke arrived at the maneuvers of the Austrian troops. Bosnia at that time still remained part of Austria-Hungary, and Serbian nationalists considered part of the Bosnian territory, including Sarajevo, to be theirs. The assassination of the Archduke, the nationalists wanted to reassert their claims.

As a result, Austria-Hungary and Germany received an extremely convenient opportunity to defeat Serbia and gain a foothold in the Balkans. The main question now is whether Russia, which has patronized Serbia, will stand up for Serbia. But in Russia, just at that time, a major reorganization of the army was going on, which was planned to be completed only by 1917. Therefore, in Berlin and

Vienna hoped that the Russians did not risk getting involved in a serious conflict. Nevertheless, Germany and Austria-Hungary discussed the plan of action for almost a month. Only on July 23, Austria-Hungary gave Serbia an ultimatum with a number of demands, which boiled down to the complete cessation of all anti-Austrian actions, including propaganda. Two days were allotted for the fulfillment of the conditions of the ultimatum.

Russia advised its Serb allies to accept the ultimatum, and they agreed to fulfill nine of its ten conditions. They only refused to allow Austrian representatives to investigate the murder of the Archduke. But Austria-Hungary, pushed by Germany, was determined to fight even if the Serbs accepted the entire ultimatum. On July 28, she declared war on Serbia and immediately began hostilities by shelling the Serbian capital of Belgrade.

The very next day, Nicholas II signed a decree on general mobilization, but almost immediately received a telegram from Wilhelm II. The Kaiser assured the king that he would do his best to "calm down" the Austrians. Nicholas canceled his decree, but the Minister of Foreign Affairs S.N. Sazonov managed to convince him, and on July 30, Russia nevertheless announced a general mobilization. In response, Germany itself began a general mobilization, at the same time demanding that Russia cancel its military preparations within 12 hours. Having received a decisive refusal, Germany on August 1 declared war on Russia. It is characteristic that even the day before the Germans informed France of their intention, insisting on its observance of neutrality. However, the French, bound to Russia by treaty, also announced mobilization. Then on August 3, Germany declared war on France and Belgium. The next day, England, initially showing some hesitation, declared war on Germany. So the Sarajevo massacre led to a world war. Subsequently, 34 states on the side of the opposite bloc (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) were drawn into it.

Reasons for the war:

1. The struggle of the capitalist powers for markets and sources of raw materials;

The aggravation of all contradictions in the countries of capitalism;

Creation of two opposing blocs;

Weak peace forces (weak labor movement);

Striving for the division of the world.

The nature of the war:

For everyone, the war was of an aggressive nature, but for Serbia it was fair, because. the conflict with it (presenting an ultimatum on July 23, 1914) to Austria-Hungary was only a pretext for the outbreak of hostilities.

State goals:

¾ Germany sought to establish world domination.

¾ Austria-Hungary Control over the Balkans => control over the movement of ships in the Adriatic Sea => enslave the Slavic countries.

¾ England sought to capture Turkish possessions, as well as Mesopotamia and Palestine with their oil possessions.

¾ France sought to weaken Germany, return Alsace and Lorraine (lands); seize the coal basin, claims to be the hegemon in Europe.

¾ Russia sought to undermine the position of Germany and secure free passage for itself through the Strait of Vasbor and the Dardanelles in the Mediterranean Sea. Strengthen influence in the Balkans (by weakening German influence on Turkey).

¾ Turkey sought to leave the Balkans under its influence, seize the Crimea and Iran (raw material base).

¾ Italy Dominance in the Mediterranean and Southern Europe.

The war can be divided into three periods:

During the first period (1914-1916) the Central Powers achieved superiority of forces on land, while the Allies dominated the sea. This period ended with negotiations on a mutually acceptable peace, but each side still hoped for victory.

In the next period (1917), two events occurred that led to an imbalance of power: the first was the entry into the war of the United States on the side of the Entente, the second was the revolution in Russia and its withdrawal from the war.

The third period (1918) began with the last major advance of the Central Powers in the west. The failure of this offensive was followed by revolutions in Austria-Hungary and Germany and the surrender of the Central Powers.

The first main stage of the war. Allied forces initially included Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro and Belgium and enjoyed overwhelming naval superiority (Table 2). The Entente had 316 cruisers, while the Germans and Austrians had 62. But the latter found a powerful countermeasure - submarines. By the beginning of the war, the armies of the Central Powers numbered 6.1 million people; Entente army - 10.1 million people. The Central Powers had an advantage in internal communications, which allowed them to quickly transfer troops and equipment from one front to another. In the long term, the Entente countries had superior resources of raw materials and food, especially since the British fleet paralyzed Germany's ties with overseas countries, from where before the war German enterprises received copper, tin and nickel. Thus, in the event of a protracted war, the Entente could count on victory. Germany, knowing this, relied on a lightning war - "blitzkrieg".

The Germans put into action the Schlieffen plan, which was supposed to ensure a rapid success in the West with a large offensive against France through Belgium. After the defeat of France, Germany hoped, together with Austria-Hungary, by transferring the liberated troops, to strike a decisive blow in the East. But this plan was not carried out. One of the main reasons for his failure was the sending of part of the German divisions to Lorraine in order to block the enemy's invasion of southern Germany. On the night of August 4, the Germans invaded Belgian territory. It took them several days to break the resistance of the defenders of the fortified regions of Namur and Liège, which blocked the path to Brussels, but thanks to this delay, the British transported almost 90,000 expeditionary force across the English Channel to France (August 9-17). The French, on the other hand, gained time to form 5 armies that held back the German advance. Nevertheless, on August 20, the German army occupied Brussels, then forced the British to leave Mons (August 23), and on September 3, the army of General A. von Kluk was 40 km from Paris. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and on September 5 stopped along the Paris-Verdun line. The commander of the French forces, General Jacques Joffre, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to launch a counteroffensive.

The first battle on the Marne began on 5 and ended on 12 September. It was attended by 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies. The Germans were defeated. One of the reasons for their defeat was the absence of several divisions on the right flank, which had to be transferred to the eastern front. The French advance on the weakened right flank made it inevitable that the German armies would retreat northward to the line of the Aisne River. The battles in Flanders on the rivers Yser and Ypres on October 15 - November 20 were also unsuccessful for the Germans. As a result, the main ports on the English Channel remained in the hands of the Allies, which ensured communication between France and England. Paris was saved and the Entente countries got time to mobilize resources. The war in the west took on a positional character; Germany's hopes of defeating and withdrawing France from the war turned out to be untenable.

Hopes remained that on the Eastern Front the Russians would be able to crush the armies of the Central Powers bloc. On August 17, Russian troops entered East Prussia and began to push the Germans to Koenigsberg. Leading the counteroffensive was entrusted to the German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Russian command, the Germans managed to drive a "wedge" between the two Russian armies, defeat them on August 26-30 near Tannenberg and force them out of East Prussia. Austria-Hungary did not act so successfully, abandoning the intention to quickly defeat Serbia and concentrating large forces between the Vistula and the Dniester. But the Russians launched an offensive in a southerly direction, broke through the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian troops and, having captured several thousand people, occupied the Austrian province of Galicia and part of Poland. The advance of the Russian troops posed a threat to Silesia and Poznan, important industrial regions for Germany. Germany was forced to transfer additional forces from France. But an acute shortage of ammunition and food stopped the advance of the Russian troops. The offensive cost Russia huge losses, but undermined the power of Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to keep significant forces on the Eastern Front.

Back in August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany. In October 1914, Turkey entered the war on the side of the bloc of the Central Powers. With the outbreak of war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on the grounds that neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary had been attacked. But at the secret London talks in March-May 1915, the Entente countries promised to satisfy the territorial claims of Italy in the course of the post-war peace settlement if Italy came out on their side. May 23, 1915 Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. And on August 28, 1916, Germany on the western front, the British were defeated in the second battle of Ypres. Here, during the battles that lasted for a month (April 22 - May 25, 1915), chemical weapons were used for the first time. After that, poison gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring parties. The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation, a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped at the beginning of 1915, ended in defeat with the aim of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and attracting the Balkan states to the side of the allies. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops had driven the Russians out of almost all of Galicia and from most of the territory of Russian Poland. But it was not possible to force Russia to a separate peace. In October 1915, Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, after which the Central Powers, together with a new Balkan ally, crossed the borders of Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. Having captured Romania and covered the Balkan flank, they turned against Italy.

war historical versailles peaceful

The balance of power at the beginning of the war

СтранаЧисленность армии после мобилизации (млн. чел.)Численность Легких орудийЧисленность Тяжелых орудийЧисленность СамолетовРоссия5.3386.848240263Великобритания1.0001.50050090Франция3.7813.960688156Антанта10.11912.3081.428449Германия3.8226.3292.076232Австро-Венгрия2.3003.10450665Центральные державы6.1229.4332.582297

War at sea. Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lanes open for US merchant ships. The German colonies were captured, and the trade of the Germans through the sea routes was suppressed. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine fleet - was blocked in its ports. Only occasionally did small fleets come out to attack British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war, only one major naval battle took place - when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British near the Danish coast of Jutland. The Battle of Jutland May 31 - June 1, 1916 resulted in heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, about 6,800 men killed, captured and wounded; the Germans, who considered themselves victorious, - 11 ships and about 3,100 people killed and wounded. However, the British forced the German fleet to withdraw to Kiel, where it was effectively blockaded. The German fleet no longer appeared on the high seas, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas.

Having taken a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off. The Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. According to international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered "military contraband" to other neutral countries - the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could be delivered to Germany. However, the warring countries usually did not bind themselves to the observance of international law, and Great Britain so expanded the list of goods considered as contraband that in fact nothing passed through its barriers in the North Sea.

The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Its only effective means at sea remained the submarine fleet, capable of freely bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships of neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to save the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships.

On February 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamer Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President W. Wilson protested, the United States and Germany exchanged sharp diplomatic notes.

Verdun and the Somme. Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and seek a way out of the deadlock in action on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut-el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing for a large-scale offensive operation on the Western Front, which was supposed to turn the tide of the war and force France to sue for peace. The key point of the French defense was the ancient fortress of Verdun. After an artillery bombardment of unprecedented power, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans slowly advanced until the beginning of July, but they did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun "meat grinder" clearly did not justify the calculations of the German command. Operations on the Eastern and Southwestern Fronts were of great importance during the spring and summer of 1916. In March, at the request of the Allies, Russian troops carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. The German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, holding 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive on the Southwestern Front. During the fighting under the command of A.A. Brusilov managed to carry out a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina, entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period of trench warfare, the front was broken through. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To relieve pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River. For four months - until November - there were unceasing attacks. The Anglo-French troops, having lost about 800 thousand people, could not break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.

Basis for peace negotiations. At the beginning of the 20th century, the ways of conducting military operations completely changed. The length of the fronts increased significantly, the armies fought on fortified lines and attacked from the trenches, machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role in offensive battles. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth inhabitant of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In the warring countries, there was almost no room for ordinary civilian life: everything was subordinated to the titanic efforts aimed at maintaining the military machine. The total cost of the war, including property losses, was estimated to be between $208 billion and $359 billion. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the time had come to start peace negotiations.

The second main stage of the war. On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers asked the United States to send a note to the Allies with a proposal to start peace negotiations18. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made in order to break up the coalition. In addition, she did not want to talk about a world that would not provide for the payment of reparations and the recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations, and on December 18, 1916, he turned to the warring countries with a request to determine mutually acceptable peace terms.

As early as December 12, 1916, Germany proposed to convene a peace conference. The civil authorities of Germany were clearly striving for peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their terms: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe.

The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take seriously the idea of ​​peace negotiations. Germany intended to take part in a peace conference in December 1916, relying on the benefits of her martial law. The case ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain laid claim to the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to receive Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy - Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most of Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all the allies.

US entry into the war. At the beginning of the war, public opinion in the United States was divided: some openly sided with the Allies; others - like the Irish-Americans who were hostile to England, and the German-Americans - supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens leaned more and more on the side of the Entente. This was facilitated by several factors, and, above all, the propaganda of the Entente countries and the German submarine war.

On January 22, 1917, President Wilson set out in the Senate terms of peace acceptable to the United States. The main one was reduced to the demand for "peace without victory", i.e. non-annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of the equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace is made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, then a world organization of states can be created that guarantees security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unlimited submarine warfare in order to disrupt enemy communications. Submarines blocked the supply lines of the Entente and put the allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility towards Germany among Americans, as the blockade of Europe from the west boded ill for the United States. In the event of a victory, Germany could establish control over the entire Atlantic Ocean.

Along with the noted circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to the war on the side of the allies. The economic interests of the United States were directly connected with the countries of the Entente, since military orders led to the rapid growth of American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred on by plans to develop programs for the preparation of military operations. Anti-German sentiment among North Americans grew even more after the publication on March 1, 1917 of Zimmermann's secret dispatch of January 16, 1917, which was intercepted by British intelligence and passed on to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmermann offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it would support Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By the beginning of April, anti-German sentiment in the United States reached such a pitch that on April 6, 1917, Congress voted to declare war on Germany.

Russia's exit from the war. In February 1917, a revolution took place in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. The provisional government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed. Russia gave up its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. In total, Russia has lost about 1 million square meters. km. She was also obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks.

The third main stage of the war. The Germans had good reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then her withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer the eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main directions of the offensive. The allies, not knowing where the blow would come from, were forced to strengthen their positions along the entire front. American help was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatism grew with threatening force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.

The German offensive of 1918 On a foggy morning on March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on the British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the united Anglo-French front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance.

However, the offensive cost Germany heavy losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shattered. The Allies were able to neutralize the German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany.

Soon long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France.

July 1918 the Germans made their last attempt to break through. A second decisive battle unfolded on the Marne. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to leave Reims, which, in turn, could lead to the retreat of the allies along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, the German troops advanced, but not as fast as expected.

The last offensive of the allies. On July 18, 1918, a counterattack by American and French troops began to relieve pressure on Château-Thierry. In the battle of Amiens on August 8, the German troops suffered a heavy defeat, and this undermined their morale. Earlier, German Chancellor Prince von Gertling believed that the Allies would sue for peace by September. “We hoped to take Paris by the end of July,” he recalled. - So we thought the fifteenth of July. And on the eighteenth, even the most optimistic among us realized that all was lost. Some military men convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost, but Ludendorff refused to admit defeat.

The Allied advance began on other fronts as well. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the Allies, who encouraged the defection of Poles, Czechs and South Slavs. The Central Powers mustered the last of their forces to contain the expected invasion of Hungary. The way to Germany was open.

Tanks and massive artillery shelling became important factors in the offensive. In early August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In his Memoirs, Ludendorff called the beginning of the battle of Amiens on August 8 "a black day for the German army." The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight. By the end of September, even Ludendorff was ready to surrender. Bulgaria signed the armistice on 29 September. A month later, Turkey capitulated, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary.

To negotiate peace in Germany, a moderate government was formed, headed by Prince Max B., who already on October 5, 1918, proposed to President Wilson to begin the negotiation process. In the last week of October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. By October 30, the resistance of the Austrian troops was broken. The cavalry and armored vehicles of the Italians made a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters. On October 27, Emperor Charles I issued an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918, he agreed to conclude peace on any terms.

Brief conclusions. At the beginning of the XX century. the struggle of the capitalist powers for markets, and the sources of raw materials reached extreme severity, against the backdrop of economic rivalry, political disagreements occurred, which led to the political rivalry of the great powers, the result of the rivalry was the formation of two political blocs: the Entente and the Triple Alliance. The formation of two blocs of great powers hostile to each other, which took place against the backdrop of an intensified arms race, created a situation in the world that threatened at any moment to turn into a military conflict on a global scale. The impetus for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. But Russia intervened in the events, which began the mobilization of its army. Germany demanded its termination. When Russia did not respond to her ultimatum, Germany declared war on her on August 1, and later on France. Then Britain and Japan entered the war. The First World War began. The German command believed that after the defeat of France, the army should have been transferred to the east against Russia. Initially, the offensive in France developed successfully. But then part of the German troops were transferred to the Eastern Front, where the Russian army launched an offensive. The French took advantage of this and stopped the advance of the German army on the Marne River. The Western Front was formed. Soon the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance. Military operations against it began in Transcaucasia, in Mesopotamia, on the Sinai Peninsula. April 6, 1917 The United States declares war on Germany, the United States takes the side of the countries participating in the Entente. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, the United States is landing its troops in France. The First World War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the Triple Alliance. In October 1918, a truce was signed for 36 days and the German government turned to US President Woodrow Wilson with a proposal to conclude a truce on all fronts. On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed, which put an end to World War I.

Timeline of important events in the First World War

YearThe course of hostilitiesFeatures of the warOn August 4, 1914, the Germans invaded Belgium.Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and on September 5 stopped along the Paris-Verdun line. The Battle of Verdun was attended by 2 million people, 5 German and 6 million people. Anglo-French soldiers. The war was oppositional. On August 4, the Russian army invaded the aisles of Germany. The German army is defeated. Japan starts the war on August 23. New fronts were formed in Transcaucasia and Mesopotamia, on the Sinai Peninsula. The war is waged on 2 fronts and takes on a positional character (i.e. protracted). 1915 The use of chemical weapons. Chemical weapons, namely chlorine, were first used on the western front near Ypres. In total, 15 thousand people died. 1916 Germany shifts its efforts to the western front The city of Verden became the main theater (place) of hostilities. The operation was called the Verdun meat grinder. It lasted from February 21 to December, and 1 million people died. There is an active offensive of the Russian army, the strategic initiative was in the hands of the Entente. Bloody battles that depleted the resources of all warring countries. The situation of the workers worsened, revolutionary actions of soldiers grew, especially in Russia. 1917 The United States enters the war In October, Russia withdrew from the war. Revolution in Russia. Spring 1918 Anglo-French troops had a significant advantage under the German armies. The Entente troops used tanks for the first time. German troops were ousted from the territory of France, Belgium, the soldiers of Austria-Hungary refused to fight. On November 3, 1918, a revolution took place in Germany itself, and on November 11, the Peace Treaty was signed in the Compiègne forest.

The use of tanks. The strongest revolutionary uprisings took place in all the belligerent countries.

2. Socio-economic situation in Russia during the First World War

The specifics of the economic and social development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. led to the fact that the country was a complex conglomerate of almost autonomous socio-economic enclaves with their own, often irreconcilable interests. Under these conditions, the flexibility and far-sightedness of the authorities, the ability not only to adapt to existing conditions, but to influence them through anticipatory steps that could keep the entire socio-economic system in balance and prevent its collapse were of particular importance. At the same time, it should be noted once again that for the time being, not a single social force, except for a part of the intelligentsia, openly raised the question of forcibly changing the autocratic principle of government, relying only on the fact that government policy would take into account their interests. Therefore, all layers jealously perceived the traditional attachment of power to the nobility, and the latter became openly aggressive with any attempt to encroach on its primordial rights and interests.

In such conditions, the personality of the monarch was of decisive importance. However, at a critical time, a man appeared on the Russian throne who did not understand the scale of the tasks ahead. Nikolai, unlike his famous grandfather, did not feel the alarming atmosphere of general expectation, bringing the country to a revolutionary explosion. Not having his own program, he was forced to use the one that was strongly imposed by liberal forces to get out of the crisis. But Nicholas was inconsistent. His domestic policy has lost its historical logic, and therefore met with rejection and irritation from both the left and the right. The result was a rapid decline in the prestige of power. Not a single tsar in the history of Russia was subjected to such impudent and open reproach as Nicholas II. This led to a decisive change in the public consciousness. The most terrible thing happened: the halo of the king as the Divine chosen one, a bright and infallible personality dissipated. And from the fall of the moral authority of the authorities there was only a step to its overthrow. It was accelerated by the First World War.

At the same time, most political parties, having no real social base, appealed to the darkest instincts of the masses. The Black Hundreds, with their bloody pogroms and anti-Semitism, the Bolsheviks, with their violent rejection of the idea of ​​social peace, the Socialist-Revolutionaries, with their romanticization of the gravest sin - the murder of a person - they all introduced ideas of hatred and enmity into the mass consciousness. The populist, punchy slogans of the radical parties - from the Black Hundreds "beat the Jew, save Russia" to the revolutionary "rob the loot" - were simple and understandable. They did not affect the mind, but the feelings, and could at any moment turn ordinary people into a crowd capable of any illegal actions. Separate prophetic warnings about the perniciousness of such sentiments remained "the voice of one crying in the wilderness." The psychology of hatred, destruction, the loss of a sense of the very value of human life was greatly intensified by the world war. The slogan of the defeat of their government became the apogee of the moral decay of the Russian people. And the collapse of traditional moral foundations was bound to lead to the collapse of the state. It was accelerated by the revolution.

Changes in the country's economy during the First World War:

The pride of the nation was also domestic science and technology. They are represented by the names of I.P. Pavlova, K.A. Timiryazev and others I.P. Pavlov was the first Russian scientist to be awarded the Nobel Prize.

Changes in the economy led to changes in the social sphere. The reflection of this process was the increase in the size of the working class. However, the country still 75% of the population were peasants. In the political field, Russia remained a Duma monarchy.

The total cost of the war by March 1917 had already exceeded 30 billion rubles. The money spent on the war is not returned in the form of goods or profits, which leads to an increase in the total amount of money in the country26. They are depreciating. So, by February 1917, the ruble fell to 27 kopecks. Food prices have increased by 300%. Silver coins began to disappear from circulation, instead of them a large amount of paper money was issued.

Industrial enterprises reduced output. Small businesses closed. Consequently, the mobilization of industry accelerated.

The role of banks has grown significantly. In 1917, the largest Russian banks dominated railway companies, machine building, controlled 60% of the share capital in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil, timber and other industries.

Russia has lost its traditional trading partner, Germany. The system of free market relations was supplanted by the ordering system, the redistribution of funds for the needs of the military industry, caused a shortage of goods in the country of free competition.

Restructuring the economy for military needs:

By this time, it became clear that victory was determined not so much by actions on the fronts as by the situation in the rear. The command of all the warring countries counted on the short duration of hostilities. There were no large stocks of equipment and ammunition. Already in 1915, everyone faced difficulties in supplying the army. It became clear that a sharp expansion of the scale of military production was required. The restructuring of the economy began. In all countries, it primarily meant the introduction of strict state regulation. The state determined the volume of necessary production, placed orders, provided raw materials and labor. Labor service was introduced, which made it possible to reduce the shortage of workers caused by the conscription of men into the army. As military production grew at the expense of civilian production, there was a shortage of consumer goods. This forced the introduction of price controls and consumption rationing. The mobilization of men and the requisition of horses caused severe damage to agriculture. In all the warring countries, except England, food production was reduced, and this led to the introduction of a rationing system for the distribution of food. In Germany, which traditionally imported food, a particularly deplorable situation developed due to the blockade. The government was forced to prohibit the feeding of livestock with grain and potatoes, and the introduction of all kinds of low-nutrient food substitutes - ersatz.

At the time of the October uprising in Russia and for the first time after it, the Bolsheviks did not have a clear and detailed plan for transformations, including in the economic sphere. They expected that after the victory of the revolution in Germany, "the German proletariat as more organized and advanced" would take on the task of developing a socialist course, and the Russian would only have to support this course. Lenin at that time sounded characteristic phrases like “We don’t know how to build socialism” or “We dragged socialism into everyday life and we have to figure it out here.”

The reference point for the economic policy of the Bolsheviks was the model of the economic structure described in the works of the classics of Marxism. According to this model, the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat was to become a monopolist of all property, all citizens became employees of the state, equalization was to dominate in society, i.e. a course was taken to replace commodity-money relations with centralized distribution of products and administrative management of the national economy. Lenin described the socio-economic model he presented as follows: "The whole society will be one office and one factory with equality of labor and equality of pay."

In practice, these ideas were realized in the liquidation of industrial, banking and commercial capital. All private banks were nationalized, all external state loans were canceled, foreign trade was monopolized - the financial system was completely centralized.

In the first weeks after October, industry was transferred under "workers' control", which did not give a noticeable economic - and political - effect. An accelerated nationalization of industry, transport, and the merchant fleet was carried out, which Lenin called "a Red Guard attack on capital." All trade was quickly nationalized, down to small shops and workshops.

The strictest centralization of the management of the national economy was introduced. In December 1917, the Supreme Council of the National Economy was created, in whose hands all economic management and planning was concentrated. The demand for military discipline in production was announced, general labor service was introduced for persons from 16 to 50 years old. Strict sanctions were envisaged for evading compulsory labor. The idea of ​​creating labor. troops hatched and actively put into practice by Trotsky. Lenin declared the need to move "from labor service as applied to the rich."

Trade was replaced by card distribution of products. Those not engaged in socially useful work did not receive cards.

Having rather quickly solved the problem of suppressing the big bourgeoisie, the Bolshevik leaders announced the transfer of the center of the class struggle and economic reforms to the countryside. A surplus was introduced. This measure reflected the theoretical ideas of the Bolsheviks: an attempt was made to administratively abolish commodity-money relations in the countryside. But, on the other hand, the specific practice left the Bolsheviks a rather small choice: after the liquidation of the landlord and monastic economic complexes, the mechanism for the procurement and sale of food was broken. The peasantry in the conditions of communal locality tended to naturalism in housekeeping. The Bolsheviks tried to create state farms and agricultural communes in the countryside, to transfer agriculture to the rails of centralized production and management. More often than not, these attempts have been outright failures. There was a threat of famine. The authorities saw the overcoming of food difficulties in emergency measures, in the use of force. Agitation was carried out among the urban workers, calling for a "campaign against the kulaks." Food detachments were allowed to use weapons.

Centralizing tendencies in the economy appeared even before the Bolsheviks. During the war years, the rationing of production, marketing and consumption was characteristic of all warring countries. In 1916, the tsarist government in Russia decided on a surplus appropriation, this measure was confirmed by the Provisional Government: in the conditions of the world war, it was clearly forced. The Bolsheviks, on the other hand, turned the surplus appropriation into a programmatic requirement, striving for its conservation and carrying it out much tougher. Coercion against the peasantry was becoming the norm. In addition to natural grain duty, the peasants were required to participate in the system of labor duties, in the mobilization of horses and carts. All granaries were nationalized, all privately owned farms were rapidly liquidated. Fixed prices for agricultural products were introduced. They were 46 times lower than the market ones. Everything was aimed at the accelerated creation of an economic model.

The leaders of the Bolsheviks persistently called the rationing system a sign of socialism, and trade - the main attribute of capitalism. The organization of labor took on paramilitary forms, the ultimate centralization of production and product exchange was intended to oust money from economic life.

Communist, natural elements were introduced into everyday life: food rations, utilities, industrial clothing for workers, and urban transport were declared free; some printing etc. . Such a system had its supporters among employees, unskilled workers, etc. In those difficult economic conditions, they were afraid of free market prices. Many welcomed the fight against speculation.

In general, however, the economic policy of the Bolsheviks caused discontent. It did not focus on the development of production, but on the control of distribution and consumption. Money artificially depreciated. The peasants did not want to work in conditions of reduced sowing. Grain harvest was reduced by 40%, sown areas of industrial crops decreased by 12-16 times compared with pre-war. The number of livestock has been significantly reduced. Workers were transferred from piecework to tariff, which also reduced their interest in productive labor. Money lost its production-stimulating function. Under the conditions of natural product exchange, the role of money as a universal equivalent was also gradually eroded, without which it was impossible to establish normal production. The economy quickly deteriorated. The pre-revolutionary production assets were being eaten up, there was no new construction, and there was no expansion. People's lives were getting harder.

The new technique used by the Russians during the First World War:

At the beginning of the century, the development of automatic weapons began in Russia. His sample was created by a soldier - a blacksmith Y. Rotsepey. Despite the award of a large silver medal to him, the weapon was not produced until the very first world war.

In 1906, V. Fedotov designed an automatic rifle. In 1911, its first sample was released. The following year, 150 pieces were made. However, the king spoke out against further release, because. for her, they say, there will not be enough cartridges.

T. Kotelnikov created the first parachute. During the First World War, the tsarist government paid foreigners 1,000 rubles. for the right to manufacture a parachute at the Triangle plant in Petrograd.

M. Naletov created the world's first submarine designed for laying mines.

Russia was the only country that at the beginning of the war had further bomber aircraft - the Ilya Muravets airships.

On the eve of the war, Russia had excellent field artillery, but was much inferior to the Germans in heavy artillery.

Industry

The war made its demands on industry as well. In order to mobilize it for the needs of the front, the government decided to create meetings and committees. In March 1915, a committee for the distribution of fuel was created, in May of the same year - the main food committee, etc. Almost simultaneously with the indicated actions of the government, military-industrial committees began to form. The leading role in them belonged to the bourgeoisie, and 226 committees were created by it. The Russian bourgeoisie was able to attract 1200 private enterprises to the production of weapons. The measures taken made it possible to significantly improve the supply of the army. Paying tribute to them, we emphasize that the produced stocks were enough for the civil war.

However, the development of industry was one-sided. Enterprises not related to military production were closed, thereby accelerating the process of monopolization. The war disrupted traditional market ties. Part of the factories closed because it was impossible to get equipment from abroad. The number of such enterprises in 1915 amounted to 575. The war led to the strengthening of state regulation of the economy and the curtailment of free market relations. For the country's economy, the curtailment of market relations and the strengthening of state regulation turned into a fall in industrial production. By 1917 it was 77% of the pre-war level. Small and medium capital was the least interested in the development of the trend noted above and showed extreme interest in ending the war.

Transport was also in a difficult position. By 1917, the locomotive fleet was reduced by 22%. Transport did not provide either military or civilian cargo transportation. In particular, in 1916 he completed only 50% of the food transportation for the army.

Agriculture was also in a difficult position. During the war years, 48% of the male population was mobilized from the village to the army. The shortage of workers led to a reduction in the area under crops, an increase in prices for the processing of agricultural products, and, ultimately, an increase in retail prices. Huge damage was done to livestock. The total number of livestock and, especially, the main draft force - horses, has sharply decreased.

All this had its consequences. The food problem associated with transport and other troubles has become extremely aggravated in the country. It increasingly embraced both the army and the civilian population. The situation was greatly aggravated by the disorder of finances. The commodity value of the ruble by 1917 was 50% of the pre-war, and the issue of paper money increased 6 times.

Failures at the front, the deterioration of the internal situation led to the growth of social tension in society. It manifested itself in all areas. Unity based on patriotic sentiments was replaced by disillusionment and dissatisfaction with the policies of the government and the monarchy, and as a result, a sharp increase in the political activity of various social groups. In August 1915, the "Progressive Bloc" was formed. It included representatives of bourgeois and partially monarchist parties - a total of 300 Duma deputies. Representatives of the bloc presented their program. Its main provisions were: the creation of the Ministry of Public Trust, a broad political amnesty, which included the permission of trade unions, the legalization of the workers' party, the weakening of the political regime in Poland, Finland and other national outskirts.

. Treaty of Versailles

In October 1918, a truce was signed for 36 days: the development of peace conditions, but they were tough. They were dictated by the French. Peace was not signed. The truce was extended 5 times. There was no unity in the Allied camp. France held the first position. She was greatly weakened by the war, both economically and financially. She came out with demands for the payment of colossal reparations, as she sought to crush the German economy. She demanded the division of Germany, but England opposed this.

Germany agreed to Wilson's Fourteen Points, the document that served as the basis for a just world. Nevertheless, the countries of Atlanta demanded from Germany full compensation for the damage caused to the civilian population and the economy of these countries. In addition to demands for restitution, negotiations were complicated by territorial claims and secret agreements made by England, France and Italy with each other and with Greece and Romania in the last year of the war.

June 1919 - Signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which put an end to World War I. The peace treaty between Germany and the countries of the Entente was signed in the Mirror Hall of the Palace of Versailles in the suburbs of Paris. The date of its signing went down in history as the day the World War I ended, despite the fact that the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles came into force only on January 10, 1920.

27 countries participated in it. It was an agreement between the winners and Germany. Germany's allies did not take part in the conference. The text of the peace treaty was created during the Paris Peace Conference in the spring of 1919. In fact, the terms were dictated by the leaders of the Big Four represented by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French President Georges Clemenceau, American President Woodrow Wilson and Italian President Vittorio Orlando. The German delegation was shocked by the harsh terms of the treaty and the apparent contradictions between the armistice agreements and the future peace provisions. The vanquished were especially indignant at the wording of German war crimes and the incredible amount of her reparations.

The legal basis for Germany's reparations was accusations of her war crimes. It was unrealistic to calculate the real damage caused by the war to Europe (especially France and Belgium), but the approximate amount was $ 33,000,000,000. Despite the statements of world experts that Germany would never be able to pay such reparations without pressure from the Entente countries, the text The peace treaty contained provisions that allowed for certain measures of influence on Germany. Among the opponents of the recovery of reparations was John Maynard Keynes, who, on the day of the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, said that Germany's huge debt would lead to a world economic crisis in the future. His prediction, unfortunately, came true: in 1929, the United States and other countries suffered the Great Depression. By the way, it was Keynes who stood at the origins of the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

The leaders of the Entente, in particular, Georges Clemenceau, were interested in excluding any possibility of Germany starting a new world war. To this end, the treaty included provisions according to which the German army was to be reduced to 100,000 personnel, military and chemical production in Germany was prohibited. The entire territory of the country east of the Rhine and 50 km to the west was declared a demilitarized zone.

From the very signing of the Treaty of Versailles, the Germans declared that "the Entente imposed a peace treaty on them." In the future, the rigid provisions of the treaty were relaxed in favor of Germany. However, the shock that the German people experienced after the signing of this shameful peace remained in memory for a long time, and Germany harbored hatred for the rest of the states of Europe. In the early 1930s, in the wake of revanchist ideas, Adolf Hitler managed to come to power in an absolutely legal way.

Germany's capitulation allowed Soviet Russia to denounce the provisions of the Brest-Litovsk Separate Peace, concluded between Germany and Russia in March 1918, and return its western territories.

Germany has lost a lot. Alsace and Lorraine went to France, and northern Schleswick to Denmark. Germany lost more territories that were given to Holland. But France failed to achieve a border along the Rhine. Germany was forced to recognize the independence of Austria. Unification with Austria was forbidden. In general, a colossal number of different prohibitions were imposed on Germany: a ban on creating a large army and having many types of weapons. Germany was forced to pay reparations. But the issue of quantity has not been resolved. A special commission was created, which practically dealt only with the fact that appointed the amount of reparations for the next year. Germany was deprived of all her colonies.

Austria-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. From Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Southern Hungary, at the end of the war, the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian state was formed, which later became known as Yugoslavia. They looked like Versailles. Austria lost a number of its territories and army. Italy received South Tyrol, Trieste, Istria with adjacent areas. The Slavic lands of Czech Republic and Moravia, which for a long time were part of Austria-Hungary, became the basis of the Czechoslovak Republic that was formed. Part of Silesia also passed to her. The Austro-Hungarian naval and Danube fleets were placed at the disposal of the victorious countries. Austria had the right to keep an army of 30 thousand people on its territory. Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine were transferred to Czechoslovakia, Croatia and Slovenia were included in Yugoslavia, Transylvania, Bukovina and most of Banat-Romania. The size of the Vegerian army was determined at 35 thousand people.

It came to Turkey. Under the Treaty of Sèvres, she lost about 80% of her former lands. England received Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq. France - Syria and Lebanon. Smyrna and the surrounding areas, as well as the islands in the Aegean Sea, were to pass to Greece. In addition, Masuk went to England, Alexandretta, Killikia and a strip of territories along the Syrian border to France. The creation of independent states - Armenia and Kurdistan - in the east of Anatolia was envisaged. The British wanted to turn these countries into a springboard for the fight against the Bolshevik threat. Turkey was limited to the territory of Asia Minor and Constantinople with a narrow strip of European land. The straits were entirely in the hands of the victorious countries. Turkey officially renounced its previously lost rights to Egypt, Sudan and Cyprus in favor of England, Morocco and Tunisia - in favor of France, Libya - in favor of Italy. The army was reduced to 35 thousand people, but it could be increased to suppress anti-government protests. In Turkey, the colonial regime of the victorious countries was established. But because of the beginning of the national liberation movement in Turkey, this treaty was not ratified and then annulled.

The United States left the Versailles conference dissatisfied. It has not been ratified by the US Congress. It was her diplomatic defeat. Italy was also not happy: it did not get what it wanted. England was forced to reduce the fleet. It's expensive to maintain. She had a difficult financial situation, a large debt to the United States, and they put pressure on her. In February 1922, the 9-Power Treaty on China was signed in Washington. He did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, as it was planned to give some territory of German China to Japan. The division into spheres of influence in China was eliminated, there were no colonies left there. This treaty gave rise to another discontent in Japan. This is how the Versailles-Washington system was formed, which lasted until the mid-1930s.

4. Results of the First World War

November at 11 o'clock in the morning the signalman, who was standing at the headquarters car of the supreme commander, blew the signal "Cease fire." The signal was transmitted along the entire front. At the same time, hostilities were stopped. The First World War is over.

The Russian monarchy could not stand the test of the world war either. It was swept away within a few days by the storm of the February Revolution. The reasons for the fall of the monarchy are the chaos in the country, the crisis in the economy, politics, the contradictions of the monarchy with the general public. The catalyst for all these negative processes was the ruinous participation of Russia in the First World War. Largely due to the inability of the Provisional Government to solve the problem of achieving peace for Russia, the October Revolution took place.

World War I 1914-1918 lasted 4 years, 3 months and 10 days, 33 states participated in it (the total number of independent states is 59) with a population of more than 1.5 billion people (87% of the world's population).

The world imperialist war of 1914-1918 was the most bloody and cruel of all wars that the world knew before 1914. Never before have opposing sides deployed such huge armies for mutual destruction. The total number of armies reached 70 million people. All the achievements of technology, chemistry were aimed at the extermination of people. Killed everywhere: on land and in the air, on water and under water. Poisonous gases, explosive bullets, automatic machine guns, shells of heavy weapons, flamethrowers - everything was aimed at the destruction of human life. 10 million killed, 18 million wounded - this is the result of the war.

In the minds of millions of people who were not even directly affected by the war, the course of history was divided into two independent streams - “before” and “after” the war. "Before the war" - a free pan-European legal and economic space (only politically backward countries - like tsarist Russia - humiliated their dignity with passport and visa regimes), continuous development "ascending" - in science, technology, economics; a gradual but steady increase in personal freedoms. "After the war" - the collapse of Europe, the transformation of most of it into a conglomerate of small police states with a primitive nationalist ideology; a permanent economic crisis, aptly called by Marxists the “general crisis of capitalism”, a turn towards a system of total control over the individual (state, group or corporate).

The post-war redistribution of Europe according to the treaty looked like this. Germany was losing about 10% of its original territory. Alsace and Lorraine passed to France, and Saarland - under the temporary control of the League of Nations (until 1935). Three small northern provinces were given to Belgium, while Poland received West Prussia, the Pozdnań region and part of Upper Silesia. Gdansk was declared a free city. The German colonies in China, the Pacific region and Africa were divided among England, France, Japan and other allied countries.

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On June 28, 1914, the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Ferdinand and his wife was committed in Bosnia, in which Serbia was accused of involvement. And although the British statesman Edward Gray called for a settlement of the conflict, offering the 4 largest powers as mediators, he only managed to aggravate the situation more and draw the whole of Europe, including Russia, into the war.

Nearly a month later, Russia announces troop mobilization and conscription after Serbia turns to it for help. However, what was originally planned as a precautionary measure provoked a backlash from Germany with demands for an end to conscription. As a result, on August 1, 1914, Germany declares war on Russia.

Major events of the First World War.

Years of the First World War.

• When did World War I start? The year of the beginning of the First World War is 1914 (July 28).
• When did World War II end? The year of the end of the First World War is 1918 (November 11).

Main dates of the First World War.

During the 5 years of the war, there were many important events and operations, but several stand out among them, which played a decisive role in the war itself and its history.

• July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. Russia supports Serbia.
• August 1, 1914 Germany declares war on Russia. Germany in general has always strived for world domination. And throughout August, everyone puts ultimatums to each other and does nothing but declare war.
• In November 1914, Great Britain begins a naval blockade of Germany. Gradually, in all countries, an active mobilization of the population into the army begins.
• At the beginning of 1915, large-scale offensive operations were unfolding in Germany, on its eastern front. The spring of the same year, namely April, can be associated with such a significant event as the beginning of the use of chemical weapons. Again from Germany.
• In October 1915, hostilities were unleashed against Serbia by Bulgaria. In response to these actions, the Entente declares war on Bulgaria.
• In 1916, the use of tank technology begins, mainly by the British.
• In 1917, Nicholas II abdicates the throne in Russia, a provisional government comes to power, which leads to a split in the army. Active hostilities continue.
• In November 1918, Germany proclaims itself a republic - the result of the revolution.
• November 11, 1918, in the morning, Germany signs the Armistice of Compiègne and from that very day the hostilities end.

End of the First World War.

Despite the fact that for most of the war, German troops were able to deliver serious blows to the Allied army, by December 1, 1918, the Allies were able to break through to the borders of Germany and begin its occupation.

Later, on June 28, 1919, having no other choice, the German representatives signed a peace treaty in Paris, eventually called the "Peace of Versailles", and put an end to the First World War.

Commanders

Side forces

World War I(July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918) - one of the largest armed conflicts in the history of mankind. The first global armed conflict of the XX century. As a result of the war, four empires ceased to exist: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German. The participating countries lost more than 10 million people killed soldiers, about 12 million civilians killed, about 55 million were injured.

Military operations at sea in the First World War

Members

The main participants in the First World War:

Central Powers: German Empire, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria.

Entente: Russian Empire, France, Great Britain.

For a complete list of participants, see: World War I (Wikipedia)

Background to the conflict

The naval arms race between the British Empire and the German Empire was one of the most important causes of the First World War. Germany wanted to increase her navy to a size that would allow German overseas trade not to depend on the goodwill of Britain. However, the increase in the German fleet to a size comparable to the British fleet inevitably threatened the very existence of the British Empire.

Campaign of 1914

Breakthrough of the German Mediterranean Division to Turkey

On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The Mediterranean squadron of the Kaiser Navy under the command of Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon (battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau), not wanting to be captured in the Adriatic, went to Turkey. German ships avoided a collision with superior enemy forces and, passing through the Dardanelles, came to Constantinople. The arrival of the German squadron in Constantinople was one of the factors that pushed the Ottoman Empire to enter the First World War on the side of the Triple Alliance.

Operations in the North Sea and the English Channel

Long-range blockade of the German fleet

The British fleet intended to solve its strategic tasks through a long-range blockade of German ports. The German fleet, inferior in strength to the British, chose a defensive strategy and began laying minefields. In August 1914, the British fleet carried out the transfer of troops to the continent. During the cover of the transfer, a battle took place in the Helgoland Bay.

Both sides actively used submarines. German submarines acted more successfully, so on September 22, 1914, U-9 sank 3 British cruisers at once. In response, the British Navy began to strengthen anti-submarine defenses, the Northern Patrol was created.

Operations in the Barents and White Seas

Actions in the Barents Sea

In the summer of 1916, the Germans, knowing that an increasing amount of military cargo was coming to Russia by the northern sea route, sent their submarines into the waters of the Barents and White Seas. They sank 31 Allied ships. For confrontation, he created the Russian Flotilla of the Arctic Ocean.

Operations in the Baltic Sea

The plans of both sides for 1916 did not provide for any major operations. Germany kept insignificant forces in the Baltic, and the Baltic Fleet constantly strengthened its defensive positions by building new minefields and coastal batteries. Actions were reduced to raiding operations of light forces. In one of these operations, on November 10, 1916, the German 10th "destroyer" flotilla lost 7 ships at once in a minefield.

Despite the generally defensive character of the actions of both sides, the losses in the ship composition in 1916 were significant, especially in the German fleet. The Germans lost 1 auxiliary cruiser, 8 destroyers, 1 submarine, 8 minesweepers and small ships, 3 military transports. The Russian fleet lost 2 destroyers, 2 submarines, 5 minesweepers and small ships, 1 military transport.

Campaign of 1917

Dynamics of losses and reproduction of the tonnage of allied countries

Operations in Western European waters and in the Atlantic

April 1 - a decision was made to introduce a system of convoys on all communications. With the introduction of the convoy system and the increase in anti-submarine defense forces and means, losses in merchant tonnage began to decline. Other measures were also introduced to strengthen the fight against boats - a mass installation of guns on merchant ships was begun. During 1917, guns were installed on 3,000 British ships, and by the beginning of 1918, up to 90% of all large-capacity British merchant ships were armed. In the second half of the campaign, the British began mass laying anti-submarine minefields - in 1917 they laid 33,660 mines in the North Sea and the Atlantic. During 11 months of unrestricted submarine warfare, she lost 1,037 ships with a total tonnage of 2,600,000 tons in the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean alone. In addition, the allies and neutral countries lost 1085 ships with a capacity of 1 million 647 thousand tons. During 1917, Germany built 103 new boats, and the losses were 72 boats, of which 61 were lost in the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

cruiser hike wolf

German cruiser raids

On October 16 - 18 and December 11-12, German light cruisers and destroyers attacked the "Scandinavian" convoys and achieved major successes - they sent 3 English escort destroyers, 3 trawlers, 15 steamers to the bottom and damaged 1 destroyer. Germany in 1917 completed operating on the communications of the Entente with surface raiders. The last raid was made by a raider wolf- in total, he sank 37 ships with a total tonnage of about 214,000 tons. The fight against Entente shipping switched exclusively to submarines.

Operations in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic

barrage of otranto

Combat operations in the Mediterranean boiled down mainly to the unrestricted operations of German boats on enemy sea communications and anti-submarine defense of the Allies. During 11 months of unrestricted submarine warfare in the Mediterranean, German and Austrian boats sank 651 Allied and neutral ships with a total tonnage of 1,647,000 tons. In addition, over a hundred ships with a total displacement of 61,000 tons were blown up and killed on mines laid by minelayer boats. Heavy losses from boats in 1917 were suffered by the Allied naval forces in the Mediterranean: 2 battleships (English - Cornwallis, French - Danton), 1 cruiser (French - Chateaurenault), 1 minelayer, 1 monitor, 2 destroyers, 1 submarine. The Germans lost 3 boats, the Austrians - 1.

Actions in the Baltic

Defense of the Moonsund Archipelago in 1917

The February and October revolutions in Petrograd completely undermined the combat capability of the Baltic Fleet. On April 30, the sailor's Central Committee of the Baltic Fleet (Tsentrobalt) was created, which controlled the activities of officers.

From September 29 to October 20, 1917, using the quantitative and qualitative advantage, the German Navy and ground forces carried out Operation Albion to capture the Moonsund Islands in the Baltic Sea. In the operation, the German fleet lost 10 destroyers and 6 minesweepers, the defenders - 1 battleship, 1 destroyer, 1 submarine, up to 20,000 soldiers and sailors were captured. The Moonsund archipelago and the Gulf of Riga were abandoned by Russian forces, the Germans managed to create an immediate threat of military attack for Petrograd.

Actions in the Black Sea

Since the beginning of the year, the Black Sea Fleet continued to blockade the Bosphorus, as a result of which the Turkish fleet ran out of coal and its ships were in bases. The February events in Petrograd, the abdication of the emperor (March 2) sharply undermined morale and discipline. The actions of the fleet in the summer-autumn of 1917 were limited to raids by destroyers, which still disturbed the Turkish coast.

During the entire campaign of 1917, the Black Sea Fleet was preparing for a major landing operation on the Bosporus. It was supposed to land 3-4 rifle corps and other units. However, the timing of the landing operation was repeatedly postponed, in October the Headquarters decided to postpone the operation on the Bosphorus to the next campaign.

Campaign of 1918

Events in the Baltic, the Black Sea and the North

On March 3, 1918, a peace treaty was signed in Brest-Litovsk by representatives of Soviet Russia and the Central Powers. Russia withdrew from the First World War.

All subsequent hostilities that took place in these theaters of operations historically refer to the Civil War in Russia.

Operations in European waters

Operations in the North Sea

The last military campaign in the North Sea did not differ from the previous one in terms of the nature of the combat operations of the fleets of the parties, the opponents solved the same tasks. The German naval command considered the main task of the fleet in the 1918 campaign to be the continuation of the submarine war. German submarines from January to October 1918 in the North Sea, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean sank 1283 ships with a total displacement of 2 million 922 thousand tons. In addition, the Allies lost 1