Depending on the degree of dissociation, electrolytes are distinguished strong and weak. K is the dissociation constant, which depends on the temperature and the nature of the electrolyte and solvent, but does not depend on the concentration of the electrolyte. Reactions between ions in electrolyte solutions go almost to the end in the direction of the formation of precipitates, gases and weak electrolytes.

An electrolyte is a substance that conducts electricity due to dissociation into ions, which occurs in solutions and melts, or the movement of ions in crystal lattices solid electrolytes. Examples of electrolytes are aqueous solutions of acids, salts and bases and some crystals (for example, silver iodide, zirconium dioxide).

How to identify strong and weak electrolytes

At the same time, the processes of association of ions into molecules proceed in the electrolyte. For quantitative characteristics electrolytic dissociation the concept of the degree of dissociation was introduced. Most often, they mean an aqueous solution containing certain ions (for example, “absorption of electrolytes” in the intestine). Multi-component solution for electrodeposition of metals, as well as etching, etc. (technical term, for example, gold-plating electrolyte).

The main object of research and development in electroplating are electrolytes for surface treatment and coating. In the chemical etching of metals, the names of electrolytes are determined by the name of the basic acids or alkalis that contribute to the dissolution of the metal. This is how the group name of electrolytes is formed. Sometimes the difference (especially in the magnitude of polarizability) between electrolytes of different groups is leveled by additives contained in electrolytes.

Electrolytes and electrolytic dissociation

Therefore, such a name cannot be a classification (i.e., group) name, but should serve as an additional subgroup name of the electrolyte. If the density of the electrolyte in all cells of the battery is normal or close to normal (1.25-1.28 g / cm3), and the NRC is not lower than 12.5 V, then it is necessary to check for an open circuit inside the battery. If the density of the electrolyte in all cells is low, the battery should be charged until the density stabilizes.

In engineering[edit edit wiki text]

During the transition from one state to another, the indicators of voltage and electrolyte density change linearly within certain limits (Fig. 4 and Table 1). The deeper the battery is discharged, the lower the density of the electrolyte. Accordingly, the volume of the electrolyte contains the amount of sulfuric acid necessary for the full use of the active substance of the plates in the reaction.

Ionic conductivity is inherent in many chemical compounds that have an ionic structure, such as salts in solid or molten states, as well as many aqueous and non-aqueous solutions. Electrolytic dissociation is understood as the decomposition of electrolyte molecules in solution with the formation of positively and negatively charged ions - cations and anions. The degree of dissociation is often expressed as a percentage. This is explained by the fact that the concentrations of metallic copper and silver are introduced into the equilibrium constant.

This is explained by the fact that the concentration of water during reactions in aqueous solutions changes very slightly. Therefore, it is assumed that the concentration remains constant and is introduced into the equilibrium constant. Since electrolytes form ions in solutions, the so-called ionic reaction equations are often used to reflect the essence of reactions.

The term electrolyte is widely used in biology and medicine. The process of disintegration of molecules in an electrolyte solution or melt into ions is called electrolytic dissociation. Therefore, a certain proportion of substance molecules is dissociated in electrolytes. There is no clear boundary between these two groups; the same substance can exhibit the properties of a strong electrolyte in one solvent, and a weak one in another.

Electrolytes are substances, alloys of substances or solutions that have the ability to electrolytically conduct galvanic current. To determine which electrolytes a substance belongs to, you can use the theory of electrolytic dissociation.

Instruction

• The essence of this theory is that when melted (dissolved in water), almost all electrolytes are decomposed into ions, which are both positively and negatively charged (which is called electrolytic dissociation). Under the influence of an electric current, negative (anions "-") move towards the anode (+), and positively charged (cations, "+") move towards the cathode (-). Electrolytic dissociation is a reversible process (the reverse process is called "molarization").
• The degree (a) of electrolytic dissociation depends on the nature of the electrolyte itself, the solvent, and on their concentration. This is the ratio of the number of molecules (n) that have decayed into ions to total number molecules introduced into the solution (N). You get: a = n / N
• In this way, strong electrolytes Substances that completely decompose into ions when dissolved in water. Strong electrolytes, as a rule, include substances with highly polar or ionic bonds: these are salts that are highly soluble, strong acids (HCl, HI, HBr, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4), as well as strong bases (KOH, NaOH, RbOH, Ba (OH)2, CsOH, Sr(OH)2, LiOH, Ca(OH)2). In a strong electrolyte, the substance dissolved in it is mostly in the form of ions (anions and cations); there are practically no molecules that are undissociated.
• Weak electrolytes are substances that only partially dissociate into ions. Weak electrolytes, along with ions in solution, contain undissociated molecules. Weak electrolytes do not give a strong concentration of ions in solution. The weak ones include:
  - organic acids(almost all) (C2H5COOH, CH3COOH, etc.);
  - some of the inorganic acids (H2S, H2CO3, etc.);
  - almost all salts, slightly soluble in water, ammonium hydroxide, as well as all bases (Ca3 (PO4) 2; Cu (OH) 2; Al (OH) 3; NH4OH);
  - water. They practically do not conduct electric current, or conduct, but poorly.

Electrolytes are substances, alloys of substances or solutions that have the ability to electrolytically conduct galvanic current. It is possible to determine which electrolytes a substance belongs to using the theory of electrolytic dissociation.

Instruction

1. The essence of this theory is that when melted (dissolved in water), virtually all electrolytes are decomposed into ions, which are both positively and negatively charged (which is called electrolytic dissociation). Under the influence of an electric current, negative (anions "-") move towards the anode (+), and positively charged (cations, "+") move towards the cathode (-). Electrolytic dissociation is a reversible process (the reverse process is called "molarization").

2. The degree (a) of electrolytic dissociation depends on the nature of the electrolyte itself, the solvent, and on their concentration. This is the ratio of the number of molecules (n) that have decayed into ions to the total number of molecules introduced into the solution (N). You get: a = n / N

3. Thus, powerful electrolytes are substances that completely decompose into ions when dissolved in water. Strong electrolytes, as usual, include substances with highly polar or ionic bonds: these are salts that are perfectly soluble, strong acids (HCl, HI, HBr, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4), as well as powerful bases (KOH, NaOH, RbOH, Ba (OH)2, CsOH, Sr(OH)2, LiOH, Ca(OH)2). In a strong electrolyte, the substance dissolved in it is mostly in the form of ions (anions and cations); molecules that are undissociated are virtually non-existent.

4. Weak electrolytes are substances that only partly dissociate into ions. Weak electrolytes together with ions in solution contain undissociated molecules. Weak electrolytes do not give a strong concentration of ions in the solution. The weak ones include: - organic acids (almost all) (C2H5COOH, CH3COOH, etc.); - some of the inorganic acids (H2S, H2CO3, etc.); - virtually all salts, sparingly soluble in water, ammonium hydroxide, as well as all bases (Ca3 (PO4) 2; Cu (OH) 2; Al (OH) 3; NH4OH); - water. They actually do not conduct electricity, or conduct, but crappy.

A strong base is an inorganic chemical compound formed by a hydroxyl group -OH and an alkali (group I elements of the periodic system: Li, K, Na, RB, Cs) or alkaline earth metal (group II elements Ba, Ca). They are written as formulas LiOH, KOH, NaOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)?, Ba(OH)?.

You will need

• evaporating cup
• burner
• indicators
• metal rod
• H?RO?

Instruction

1. Powerful foundations manifest Chemical properties characteristic of all hydroxides. The presence of alkalis in the solution is determined by the change in color of the indicator. Add methyl orange, phenolphthalein to the sample with the test solution, or lower the litmus paper. Methyl orange gives a yellow color, phenolphthalein gives a purple color, and litmus paper turns a Blue colour. The stronger the base, the richer the color of the indicator.

2. If you need to find out which alkalis are presented to you, then conduct a good review of the solutions. Particularly common powerful bases are the hydroxides of lithium, potassium, sodium, barium, and calcium. Bases react with acids (neutralization reactions) to form salt and water. In this case, it is possible to isolate Ca(OH) ?, Ba(OH) ? and LiOH. When interacting with orthophosphoric acid, insoluble precipitates are formed. The remaining hydroxides will not give precipitation, tk. all K and Na salts are soluble.3 Ca(OH)? + 2 H?RO? -? Ca?(PO?)??+ 6 H?O3 Ba(OH)? +2 N?RO? -? Ba?(PO?)??+ 6 H?O3 LiOH + H?PO? -? Li?RO?? + 3 H? Strain them and pat dry. Inject the dried sediments into the flame of the burner. Lithium, calcium and barium ions can be positively determined by changing the color of the flame. Accordingly, you will determine where which hydroxide is. Lithium salts color the flame of the burner in a carmine-scarlet color. Barium salts - in green, and calcium salts - in red.

3. The remaining alkalis form soluble orthophosphates.3 NaOH + H?PO?–? Na?RO? + 3 H?O3 KOH + H?PO?–? K?RO? + 3 H?OH it is necessary to evaporate the water to a dry residue. Evaporated salts on metal rod alternately bring into the flame of the burner. Where sodium salt is located, the flame will turn into clear yellow, and potassium orthophosphate - in pink-violet. Thus having smallest set equipment and reagents you have determined all the powerful foundations given to you.

An electrolyte is a substance that in the solid state is a dielectric, that is, it does not conduct electric current, however, in a dissolved or molten form it becomes a conductor. Why is there such a sharp change in properties? The fact is that electrolyte molecules in solutions or melts dissociate into positively charged and negatively charged ions, as a result of which these substances in such a state of aggregation are capable of conducting electric current. Many salts, acids, bases have electrolytic properties.

Instruction

1. Is that all electrolytes identical in strength, that is, they are cool conductors of current? No, because many substances in solutions or melts dissociate only to a small extent. Consequently electrolytes divided into strong medium strength and weak.

2. What substances are powerful electrolytes? Such substances, in solutions or melts of which actually 100% of the molecules undergo dissociation, and regardless of the concentration of the solution. The list of strong electrolytes includes an unconditional set of soluble alkalis, salts and some acids, such as hydrochloric, bromine, iodine, nitric, etc.

3. How are they different from electrolytes average strength? The fact that they dissociate to a much lesser extent (from 3% to 30% of molecules decay into ions). Typical representatives such electrolytes are sulfuric and orthophosphoric acids.

4. And how do weak ones behave in solutions or melts? electrolytes? Firstly, they dissociate to a very small extent (no more than 3% of the total number of molecules), and secondly, their dissociation is the worse and slower, the higher the saturation of the solution. These electrolytes include, say, ammonia(ammonium hydroxide), a variety of organic and inorganic acids (including hydrofluoric - HF) and, of course, water familiar to everyone. From the fact that only a pitifully small fraction of its molecules decomposes into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions.

5. Remember that the degree of dissociation and, accordingly, the strength of the electrolyte depend on many factors: the nature of the electrolyte itself, the solvent, and the temperature. Consequently, this distribution itself is to a certain extent conditional. Tea the same substance can different conditions be both a powerful electrolyte and a weak one. To assess the strength of the electrolyte, a special value was introduced - the dissociation constant, determined on the basis of the law of mass action. But it is applicable only to weak electrolytes; powerful electrolytes they do not obey the law of the acting masses.

salt- this is chemical substances, consisting of a cation, that is, a positively charged ion, a metal and a negatively charged anion - an acid residue. There are many types of salts: typical, acidic, basic, double, mixed, hydrated, complex. It depends on the compositions of the cation and anion. How is it possible to determine base salt?

Instruction

1. Let's imagine you have four identical containers with burning solutions. You know that these are solutions of lithium carbonate, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and barium carbonate. Your task: to determine what salt is contained in the entire container.

2. Recall the physical and chemical properties of the compounds of these metals. Lithium, sodium, potassium are alkali metals of the first group, their properties are very similar, activity increases from lithium to potassium. Barium is an alkaline earth metal of the 2nd group. Its carbonic salt is excellently soluble in hot water, but badly soluble in cold water. Stop! Here is the first probability to immediately determine which container contains barium carbonate.

3. Cool the containers, say by placing them in a vessel filled with ice. Three solutions will remain clear, and the fourth will rapidly become cloudy, a white precipitate will begin to fall out. This is where the barium salt is located. Set this container aside.

4. It is allowed to quickly determine barium carbonate by another method. Alternately pour a little solution into another container with a solution of some sulfate salt (say, sodium sulfate). Only barium ions, binding with sulfate ions, instantly form a dense white precipitate.

5. It turns out that you have identified barium carbonate. But how do you distinguish between 3 alkali metal salts? This is easy enough to do, all you need are porcelain evaporating cups and a spirit lamp.

6. Pour a small amount of the entire solution into a separate porcelain cup and evaporate the water on the fire of the spirit lamp. Small crystals are formed. Bring them into the flame of an alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner - with the support of steel tweezers, or a porcelain spoon. Your task is to notice the color of the blazing "tongue" of flame. If it is a lithium salt, the color will be clear red. Sodium will color the flame an intense yellow, and potassium a purple-violet. By the way, if barium salt were tested in the same way, the color of the flame should have been green.

Useful advice
One well-known chemist in his youth exposed the greedy hostess of a boarding house in much the same way. He sprinkled the leftovers of the half-eaten dish with lithium chloride, a substance that was certainly harmless in small quantities. The next day at dinner, a slice of meat from the dish served to the table was burned in front of a spectroscope - and the residents of the boarding house saw a clear red band. The hostess cooked food from yesterday's leftovers.

Note!
Truth pure water conducts electricity very badly, it still has a measurable electrical conductivity, explained by the fact that water slightly dissociates into hydroxide ions and hydrogen ions.

Useful advice
Many electrolytes are hostile substances, therefore, when working with them, be extremely careful and follow the safety rules.

1. ELECTROLYTES

1.1. electrolytic dissociation. Degree of dissociation. The strength of electrolytes

According to the theory of electrolytic dissociation, salts, acids, hydroxides, dissolving in water, completely or partially decompose into independent particles - ions.

The process of disintegration of molecules of substances into ions under the action of polar solvent molecules is called electrolytic dissociation. Substances that dissociate into ions in solution are called electrolytes. As a result, the solution acquires the ability to conduct an electric current, because. mobile carriers of electric charge appear in it. According to this theory, when dissolved in water, electrolytes decompose (dissociate) into positively and negatively charged ions. Positively charged ions are called cations; these include, for example, hydrogen and metal ions. Negatively charged ions are called anions; ions belong to them acidic residues and hydroxide ions.

For a quantitative characteristic of the dissociation process, the concept of the degree of dissociation is introduced. The degree of dissociation of an electrolyte (α) is the ratio of the number of its molecules decomposed into ions in a given solution ( n ), to the total number of its molecules in solution ( N ), or

α = .

The degree of electrolytic dissociation is usually expressed either in fractions of a unit or as a percentage.

Electrolytes with a degree of dissociation greater than 0.3 (30%) are usually called strong, with a degree of dissociation from 0.03 (3%) to 0.3 (30%) - medium, less than 0.03 (3%) - weak electrolytes. So, for a 0.1 M solution CH3COOH α = 0.013 (or 1.3%). Therefore, acetic acid is a weak electrolyte. The degree of dissociation shows what part of the dissolved molecules of a substance has decomposed into ions. The degree of electrolytic dissociation of an electrolyte in aqueous solutions depends on the nature of the electrolyte, its concentration, and temperature.

By their nature, electrolytes can be divided into two large groups: strong and weak. Strong electrolytes dissociate almost completely (α = 1).

Strong electrolytes include:

1) acids (H 2 SO 4, HCl, HNO 3, HBr, HI, HClO 4, H M nO 4);

2) bases - hydroxides of metals of the first group of the main subgroup (alkalis) - LiOH , NaOH , KOH , RbOH , CsOH , as well as hydroxides of alkaline earth metals - Ba (OH) 2, Ca (OH) 2, Sr (OH) 2;.

3) salts soluble in water (see table of solubility).

Weak electrolytes dissociate into ions to a very small extent, in solutions they are mainly in an undissociated state (in molecular form). For weak electrolytes, an equilibrium is established between undissociated molecules and ions.

Weak electrolytes include:

1) inorganic acids ( H 2 CO 3 , H 2 S , HNO 2 , H 2 SO 3 , HCN , H 3 PO 4 , H 2 SiO 3 , HCNS , HClO, etc.);

2) water (H 2 O);

3) ammonium hydroxide ( NH4OH);

4) most organic acids

(for example, acetic CH 3 COOH, formic HCOOH);

5) insoluble and sparingly soluble salts and hydroxides of certain metals (see table of solubility).

Process electrolytic dissociation portrayed using chemical equations. For example, the dissociation of hydrochloric acid (HC l ) is written as follows:

HCl → H + + Cl - .

Bases dissociate to form metal cations and hydroxide ions. For example, the dissociation of KOH

KOH → K + + OH -.

Polybasic acids, as well as bases of polyvalent metals, dissociate in steps. For example,

H 2 CO 3 H + + HCO 3 -,

HCO 3 - H + + CO 3 2–.

The first equilibrium - dissociation along the first stage - is characterized by a constant

.

For dissociation in the second step:

.

When carbonic acid dissociation constants have the following values: K I = 4.3× 10 -7 , K II = 5.6 × 10–11 . For stepwise dissociation, always K I> K II > K III >... , because the energy that must be expended to detach an ion is minimal when it is detached from a neutral molecule.

Medium (normal) salts, soluble in water, dissociate with the formation of positively charged metal ions and negatively charged ions of the acid residue

Ca(NO 3) 2 → Ca 2+ + 2NO 3 -

Al 2 (SO 4) 3 → 2Al 3+ + 3SO 4 2–.

Acid salts (hydrosalts) - electrolytes containing hydrogen in the anion, capable of splitting off in the form of a hydrogen ion H +. Acid salts are considered as a product obtained from polybasic acids in which not all hydrogen atoms are replaced by a metal. The dissociation of acid salts occurs in stages, for example:

KHCO3 → K + + HCO 3 - (first stage)

The value of a is expressed in fractions of a unit or in % and depends on the nature of the electrolyte, solvent, temperature, concentration and composition of the solution.

The solvent plays a special role: in a number of cases, when passing from aqueous solutions to organic solvents, the degree of dissociation of electrolytes can sharply increase or decrease. In the future, in the absence of special instructions, we will assume that the solvent is water.

According to the degree of dissociation, electrolytes are conditionally divided into strong(a > 30%), medium (3% < a < 30%) и weak(a< 3%).

Strong electrolytes include:

1) some inorganic acids (HCl, HBr, HI, HNO 3 , H 2 SO 4 , HClO 4 and a number of others);

2) hydroxides of alkali (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) and alkaline earth (Ca, Sr, Ba) metals;

3) almost all soluble salts.

Medium-strength electrolytes include Mg (OH) 2, H 3 PO 4, HCOOH, H 2 SO 3, HF and some others.

Everyone considers weak electrolytes carboxylic acids(except HCOOH) and hydrated forms of aliphatic and aromatic amines. Weak electrolytes are also many inorganic acids (HCN, H 2 S, H 2 CO 3, etc.) and bases (NH 3 ∙ H 2 O).

Despite some similarities, in general, one should not identify the solubility of a substance with its degree of dissociation. So, acetic acid and ethyl alcohol are infinitely soluble in water, but at the same time, the first substance is a weak electrolyte, and the second is a non-electrolyte.

Acids and bases

Despite the fact that the concepts of "acid" and "base" are widely used to describe chemical processes, there is no unified approach to the classification of substances in terms of classifying them as acids or bases. Current theories ( ionic theory S. Arrhenius, protolytic theory I. Bronsted and T. Lowry and electronic theory G. Lewis) have certain limitations and are therefore applicable only in special cases. Let's take a closer look at each of these theories.

Arrhenius theory.

In the ionic theory of Arrhenius, the concepts of "acid" and "base" are closely related to the process of electrolytic dissociation:

An acid is an electrolyte that dissociates in solutions to form H + ions;

The base is an electrolyte that dissociates in solutions to form OH - ions;

Ampholyte (amphoteric electrolyte) is an electrolyte that dissociates in solutions with the formation of both H + ions and OH - ions.

For example:

ON ⇄ H + + A - nH + + MeO n n - ⇄ Me (OH) n ⇄ Me n + + nOH -

In accordance with the ionic theory, both neutral molecules and ions can be acids, for example:

HF⇄H++F-

H 2 PO 4 - ⇄ H + + HPO 4 2 -

NH 4 + ⇄ H + + NH 3

Similar examples can be given for the grounds:

KOH K + + OH -

- ⇄ Al(OH) 3 + OH -

+ ⇄ Fe 2+ + OH -

Ampholytes include hydroxides of zinc, aluminum, chromium and some others, as well as amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids.

In general, the acid-base interaction in solution is reduced to a neutralization reaction:

H + + OH - H 2 O

However, a number of experimental data show the limitations of the ionic theory. So, ammonia, organic amines, metal oxides such as Na 2 O, CaO, anions of weak acids, etc. in the absence of water, they exhibit the properties of typical bases, although they do not contain hydroxide ions.

On the other hand, many oxides (SO 2 , SO 3 , P 2 O 5 , etc.), halides, acid halides, without hydrogen ions in their composition, even in the absence of water, exhibit acidic properties, i.e. bases are neutralized.

In addition, the behavior of an electrolyte in an aqueous solution and in a non-aqueous medium can be opposite.

So, CH 3 COOH in water is weak acid:

CH 3 COOH ⇄ CH 3 COO - + H +,

and in liquid hydrogen fluoride it exhibits the properties of a base:

HF + CH 3 COOH ⇄ CH 3 COOH 2 + + F -

Studies of these types of reactions, and in particular reactions occurring in non-aqueous solvents, have led to more general theories of acids and bases.

Theory of Bronsted and Lowry.

Further development theory of acids and bases was the protolytic (proton) theory proposed by I. Bronsted and T. Lowry. According to this theory:

An acid is any substance whose molecules (or ions) are capable of donating a proton, i.e. be a proton donor;

A base is any substance whose molecules (or ions) are capable of attaching a proton, i.e. be a proton acceptor;

Thus, the concept of the basis is significantly expanded, which is confirmed by the following reactions:

OH - + H + H 2 O

NH 3 + H + NH 4 +

H 2 N-NH 3 + + H + H 3 N + -NH 3 +

According to the theory of I. Bronsted and T. Lowry, an acid and a base form a conjugated pair and are connected by equilibrium:

ACID ⇄ PROTON + BASE

Since the proton transfer reaction (protolytic reaction) is reversible, and a proton is also transferred in the reverse process, the reaction products are acid and base in relation to each other. This can be written as an equilibrium process:

ON + B ⇄ VN + + A -,

where HA is an acid, B is a base, BH + is an acid conjugated with base B, A - is a base conjugated with acid HA.

Examples.

1) in reaction:

HCl + OH - ⇄ Cl - + H 2 O,

HCl and H 2 O are acids, Cl - and OH - are the corresponding conjugate bases;

2) in reaction:

HSO 4 - + H 2 O ⇄ SO 4 2 - + H 3 O +,

HSO 4 - and H 3 O + - acids, SO 4 2 - and H 2 O - bases;

3) in reaction:

NH 4 + + NH 2 - ⇄ 2NH 3,

NH 4 + is an acid, NH 2 - is a base, and NH 3 acts as both an acid (one molecule) and a base (another molecule), i.e. shows signs of amphotericity - the ability to exhibit the properties of an acid and a base.

Water also has this ability:

2H 2 O ⇄ H 3 O + + OH -

Here, one H 2 O molecule attaches a proton (base), forming a conjugate acid - hydronium ion H 3 O +, the other gives a proton (acid), forming a conjugate base OH -. This process is called autoprotolysis.

It can be seen from the above examples that, in contrast to the ideas of Arrhenius, in the theory of Brönsted and Lowry, the reactions of acids with bases do not lead to mutual neutralization, but are accompanied by the formation of new acids and bases.

It should also be noted that the protolytic theory considers the concepts of "acid" and "base" not as a property, but as a function that the compound in question performs in the protolytic reaction. The same compound can react as an acid under certain conditions and as a base under others. So, in an aqueous solution of CH 3 COOH exhibits the properties of an acid, and in 100% H 2 SO 4 - a base.

However, despite its merits, the protolytic theory, like the Arrhenius theory, is not applicable to substances that do not contain hydrogen atoms, but, at the same time, exhibit the function of an acid: boron, aluminum, silicon, and tin halides.

Lewis theory.

A different approach to the classification of substances in terms of classifying them as acids and bases was the electronic theory of Lewis. Within the electronic theory:

an acid is a particle (molecule or ion) capable of attaching an electron pair (electron acceptor);

A base is a particle (molecule or ion) capable of donating an electron pair (electron donor).

According to Lewis, an acid and a base interact with each other to form a donor-acceptor bond. As a result of the addition of a pair of electrons, an electron-deficient atom has a complete electronic configuration - an octet of electrons. For example:

The reaction between neutral molecules can be represented in a similar way:

The neutralization reaction in terms of the Lewis theory is considered as the addition of an electron pair of a hydroxide ion to a hydrogen ion, which provides a free orbital to accommodate this pair:

Thus, the proton itself, which easily attaches an electron pair, from the point of view of the Lewis theory, performs the function of an acid. In this regard, Bronsted acids can be considered as reaction products between Lewis acids and bases. So, HCl is the product of neutralization of the acid H + with the base Cl -, and the H 3 O + ion is formed as a result of the neutralization of the acid H + with the base H 2 O.

Reactions between Lewis acids and bases are also illustrated by the following examples:

Lewis bases also include halide ions, ammonia, aliphatic and aromatic amines, oxygen-containing organic compounds of the R 2 CO type (where R is an organic radical).

Lewis acids include halides of boron, aluminum, silicon, tin and other elements.

Obviously, in the theory of Lewis, the concept of "acid" includes a wider range of chemical compounds. This is explained by the fact that, according to Lewis, the assignment of a substance to the class of acids is due solely to the structure of its molecule, which determines the electron-acceptor properties, and is not necessarily associated with the presence of hydrogen atoms. Lewis acids that do not contain hydrogen atoms are called aprotic.

Problem Solving Standards

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Al 2 (SO 4) 3 in water.

Aluminum sulfate is a strong electrolyte and undergoes complete decomposition into ions in an aqueous solution. Dissociation equation:

Al 2 (SO 4) 3 + (2x + 3y)H 2 O 2 3+ + 3 2 -,

or (without taking into account the process of ion hydration):

Al 2 (SO 4) 3 2Al 3+ + 3SO 4 2 -.

2. What is the HCO 3 ion - from the standpoint of the Bronsted-Lowry theory?

Depending on the conditions, the HCO 3 ion can donate protons:

HCO 3 - + OH - CO 3 2 - + H 2 O (1),

and add protons:

HCO 3 - + H 3 O + H 2 CO 3 + H 2 O (2).

Thus, in the first case, the HCO 3 ion - is an acid, in the second - a base, that is, it is an ampholyte.

3. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Lewis theory, is the Ag + ion in the reaction:

Ag + + 2NH 3 +

In the process of formation of chemical bonds, which proceeds according to the donor-acceptor mechanism, the Ag + ion, having a free orbital, is an acceptor of electron pairs, and thus exhibits the properties of a Lewis acid.

4. Determine the ionic strength of the solution in one liter of which there are 0.1 mol of KCl and 0.1 mol of Na 2 SO 4.

The dissociation of the presented electrolytes proceeds in accordance with the equations:

Na 2 SO 4 2Na + + SO 4 2 -

Hence: C (K +) \u003d C (Cl -) \u003d C (KCl) \u003d 0.1 mol / l;

C (Na +) \u003d 2 × C (Na 2 SO 4) \u003d 0.2 mol / l;

C (SO 4 2 -) \u003d C (Na 2 SO 4) \u003d 0.1 mol / l.

The ionic strength of the solution is calculated by the formula:

5. Determine the concentration of CuSO 4 in a solution of this electrolyte with I= 0.6 mol/l.

The dissociation of CuSO 4 proceeds according to the equation:

CuSO 4 Cu 2+ + SO 4 2 -

Let's take C (CuSO 4) for x mol / l, then, in accordance with the reaction equation, C (Cu 2+) \u003d C (SO 4 2 -) \u003d x mol/l. AT this case the expression for calculating the ionic strength will be:

6. Determine the activity coefficient of the K + ion in an aqueous solution of KCl with C (KCl) = 0.001 mol / l.

which in this case will take the form:

.

The ionic strength of the solution is found by the formula:

7. Determine the activity coefficient of the Fe 2+ ion in an aqueous solution, the ionic strength of which is equal to 1.

According to the Debye-Hückel law:

Consequently:

8. Determine the dissociation constant of the acid HA, if in a solution of this acid with a concentration of 0.1 mol/l a = 24%.

By the magnitude of the degree of dissociation, it can be determined that this acid is an electrolyte of medium strength. Therefore, to calculate the acid dissociation constant, we use the Ostwald dilution law in its full form:

9. Determine the electrolyte concentration, if a = 10%, K d \u003d 10 - 4.

From Ostwald's Dilution Law:

10. The degree of dissociation of monobasic acid HA does not exceed 1%. (HA) = 6.4×10 - 7 . Determine the degree of dissociation of HA in its solution with a concentration of 0.01 mol/l.

By the magnitude of the degree of dissociation, it can be determined that this acid is a weak electrolyte. This allows us to use the approximate formula of the Ostwald dilution law:

11. The degree of dissociation of the electrolyte in its solution with a concentration of 0.001 mol / l is 0.009. Determine the dissociation constant of this electrolyte.

It can be seen from the condition of the problem that this electrolyte is weak (a = 0.9%). That's why:

12. (HNO 2) = 3.35. Compare the strength of HNO 2 with the strength of the monobasic acid HA, the degree of dissociation of which in solution with C(HA) = 0.15 mol/l is 15%.

Calculate (HA) using the full form of the Ostwald equation:

Since (HA)< (HNO 2), то кислота HA является более strong acid compared to HNO 2 .

13. There are two KCl solutions containing other ions. It is known that the ionic strength of the first solution ( I 1) is equal to 1, and the second ( I 2) is 10 - 2 . Compare Activity Factors f(K +) in these solutions and conclude how the properties of these solutions differ from the properties of infinitely dilute solutions of KCl.

The activity coefficients of K + ions are calculated using the Debye-Hückel law:

Activity factor f is a measure of the deviation in the behavior of an electrolyte solution of a given concentration from its behavior at an infinite dilution of the solution.

Because f 1 = 0.316 deviates more from 1 than f 2 \u003d 0.891, then in a solution with a higher ionic strength, a greater deviation in the behavior of the KCl solution from its behavior at infinite dilution is observed.

Questions for self-control

1. What is electrolytic dissociation?

2. What substances are called electrolytes and non-electrolytes? Give examples.

3. What is the degree of dissociation?

4. What factors determine the degree of dissociation?

5. What electrolytes are considered strong? What are medium strength? What are the weak? Give examples.

6. What is the dissociation constant? What does the dissociation constant depend on and what does it not depend on?

7. How are the constant and the degree of dissociation in binary solutions of medium and weak electrolytes related?

8. Why do solutions of strong electrolytes exhibit deviations from ideality in their behavior?

9. What is the essence of the term "apparent degree of dissociation"?

10. What is the activity of an ion? What is an activity coefficient?

11. How does the value of the activity coefficient change with dilution (concentration) of a strong electrolyte solution? What is the limiting value of the activity coefficient at infinite dilution of the solution?

12. What is the ionic strength of a solution?

13. How is the activity coefficient calculated? Formulate the Debye-Hückel law.

14. What is the essence of the ionic theory of acids and bases (Arrhenius theory)?

15. What is the fundamental difference between the protolytic theory of acids and bases (the theory of Bronsted and Lowry) and the theory of Arrhenius?

16. How does the electronic theory (Lewis theory) interpret the concepts of "acid" and "base"? Give examples.

Task options for independent solution

Option number 1

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Fe 2 (SO 4) 3 .

ON + H 2 O ⇄ H 3 O + + A -.

Option number 2

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of CuCl 2 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Lewis theory, is the S 2 ion - in the reaction:

2Ag + + S 2 - ⇄ Ag 2 S.

3. Calculate the molar concentration of the electrolyte in the solution if a = 0.75%, a = 10 - 5.

Option number 3

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Na 2 SO 4 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Lewis theory, is the CN ion - in the reaction:

Fe 3 + + 6CN - ⇄ 3 -.

3. The ionic strength of the CaCl 2 solution is 0.3 mol/l. Calculate C (CaCl 2).

Option number 4

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Ca(OH) 2 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Bronsted theory, is the H 2 O molecule in the reaction:

H 3 O + ⇄ H + + H 2 O.

3. The ionic strength of the K 2 SO 4 solution is 1.2 mol/l. Calculate C(K 2 SO 4).

Option number 5

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of K 2 SO 3 .

NH 4 + + H 2 O ⇄ NH 3 + H 3 O +.

3. (CH 3 COOH) = 4.74. Compare the strength of CH 3 COOH with the strength of the monobasic acid HA, the degree of dissociation of which in solution with C (HA) = 3.6 × 10 - 5 mol / l is 10%.

Option number 6

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of K 2 S.

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Lewis theory, is the AlBr 3 molecule in the reaction:

Br - + AlBr 3 ⇄ - .

Option number 7

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Fe(NO 3) 2 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Lewis theory, is the ion Cl - in the reaction:

Cl - + AlCl 3 ⇄ - .

Option number 8

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of K 2 MnO 4 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Bronsted theory, is the HSO 3 ion - in the reaction:

HSO 3 - + OH - ⇄ SO 3 2 - + H 2 O.

Option number 9

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Al 2 (SO 4) 3 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Lewis theory, is the Co 3+ ion in the reaction:

Co 3+ + 6NO 2 - ⇄ 3 -.

3. 1 liter of solution contains 0.348 g of K 2 SO 4 and 0.17 g of NaNO 3. Determine the ionic strength of this solution.

Option number 10

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Ca(NO 3) 2 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Bronsted theory, is the H 2 O molecule in the reaction:

B + H 2 O ⇄ OH - + BH +.

3. Calculate the electrolyte concentration in the solution if a = 5%, a = 10 - 5.

Option number 11

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of KMnO 4 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Lewis theory, is the Cu 2+ ion in the reaction:

Cu 2+ + 4NH 3 ⇄ 2 +.

3. Calculate the activity coefficient of the Cu 2+ ion in a CuSO 4 solution with C (CuSO 4) = 0.016 mol / l.

Option number 12

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Na 2 CO 3 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Bronsted theory, is the H 2 O molecule in the reaction:

K + + xH 2 O ⇄ + .

3. There are two NaCl solutions containing other electrolytes. The values ​​of the ionic strength of these solutions are respectively equal: I 1 \u003d 0.1 mol / l, I 2 = 0.01 mol/l. Compare Activity Factors f(Na +) in these solutions.

Option number 13

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Al(NO 3) 3 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Lewis theory, is the RNH 2 molecule in the reaction:

RNH 2 + H 3 O + ⇄ RNH 3 + + H 2 O.

3. Compare the activity coefficients of cations in a solution containing FeSO 4 and KNO 3, provided that the electrolyte concentrations are 0.3 and 0.1 mol/l, respectively.

Option number 14

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of K 3 PO 4 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Bronsted theory, is the H 3 O + ion in the reaction:

HSO 3 - + H 3 O + ⇄ H 2 SO 3 + H 2 O.

Option number 15

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of K 2 SO 4 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Lewis theory, is Pb (OH) 2 in the reaction:

Pb (OH) 2 + 2OH - ⇄ 2 -.

Option number 16

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Ni(NO 3) 2 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Bronsted theory, is the hydronium ion (H 3 O +) in the reaction:

2H 3 O + + S 2 - ⇄ H 2 S + 2H 2 O.

3. The ionic strength of a solution containing only Na 3 PO 4 is 1.2 mol / l. Determine the concentration of Na 3 PO 4.

Option number 17

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of (NH 4) 2 SO 4 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Bronsted theory, is the NH 4 + ion in the reaction:

NH 4 + + OH - ⇄ NH 3 + H 2 O.

3. The ionic strength of a solution containing both KI and Na 2 SO 4 is 0.4 mol / l. C(KI) = 0.1 mol/l. Determine the concentration of Na 2 SO 4.

Option number 18

1. Write the equation for the electrolytic dissociation of Cr 2 (SO 4) 3 .

2. Determine what, from the standpoint of the Bronsted theory, is a protein molecule in the reaction:

BLOCK OF INFORMATION

pH scale

Table 3 The relationship between the concentrations of H + and OH - ions.

Problem Solving Standards

1. The concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution is 10 - 3 mol/l. Calculate the pH, pOH and [OH - ] values ​​in this solution. Determine the medium of the solution.

Note. The following ratios are used for calculations: lg10 a = a; 10 lg a = a.

The medium of a solution with pH = 3 is acidic, since pH< 7.

2. Calculate the pH of a hydrochloric acid solution with a molar concentration of 0.002 mol/l.

Since in a dilute solution of HC1 » 1, and in a solution of a monobasic acid C (k-you) \u003d C (k-you), we can write:

3. To 10 ml of a solution of acetic acid with C(CH 3 COOH) = 0.01 mol / l was added 90 ml of water. Find the difference between the pH values ​​of the solution before and after dilution, if (CH 3 COOH) = 1.85 × 10 - 5.

1) In the initial solution of a weak monobasic acid CH 3 COOH:

Consequently:

2) Adding 90 ml of water to 10 ml of acid solution corresponds to a 10-fold dilution of the solution. That's why.